Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2008 with funding from
IVIicrosoft Corporation
http://www.archive.org/details/etymologicaldictOObracrich
CIar«nbon ^«ss S'ttm
ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY
OF THE
FRENCH LANGUAGE
EoiiDon
MACMILLAN AND CO.
PUBLISHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY OF
AN
ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY
OF THE
FRENCH LANGUAGE
• Jbv' '•'
A^BRACHET
AUTHOR OF *A HISTORICAL GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH TONGUE'
TRANSLATED BY
G. W. KITCHIN, M.A.
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
M DCCC LXXIII
[All rights reserved}
4
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
This Etymological Dictionary is the natural sequel to the His-
torical Grammar. In that work I had traced out the history of
French grammatical forms : with a view to the completion of my
task, and the full cycle of the history of the language, I was bound
to write also a history of its vocabulary. This is attempted in this
volume, which seeks to register for general use the results of philo-
logical enquiry, hitherto too much confined to a narrow circle of
literary men.
It is not that philological enquiry has been lacking in France
during the last three centuries. In the anarchical period of philo-
logy — the period between the sixteenth century and our day, during
which philology was little but a confused mass of erudite errors — two
etymological Dictionaries were written, that of Manage in 1650, and
that of Roquefort in 1829. Seven years later the illustrious Frederick
Diez pubHshed at Bonn the first volume of his Grammar of the
Rornance Languages (1836), a comparative history of the six lan-
guages which have sprung from the Latin, in which he showed by
what invariable laws Latin passed into French, Italian, Spanish,
Portugese, Wallachian; at the same moment he created a scientific
history of the French tongue. Thenceforth French philology was
revolutionised ; and, just as in the eighteenth century chemistry shook
itself free from alchemy, so then the study of the French language
became a science based on observation^ the progress of which was
destined to be very rapid, under the influence of a spirit of exact in-
vestigation : the latest born of experimental sciences, it seemed likely
to outstrip them all, except chemistry, in the rapidity and unbroken
succession of its discoveries. Every new result is enrolled in its order
in the three etymological Dictionaries which followed one another at
intervals: in 18^'^ Diez ipuhlished his I^/ymologi'sc/ier Worterbuch; in
1862 appeared M. Scheler's Dictionary of French Etymology; in 1863
the first parts of M. Littre's admirable Dictionary of the French
Tongue came out.
^ It is but fair to say that a Frenchman, M. Raynouard, had already prepared
the way by a comparative study of the six Neo-Latin tongues ; still to M. Diez
belongs the honour of having created the science by introducing into French phi-
lology an exactitude quite unknown before his time.
iVVt90209
author's preface.
These three works give us all the philological discoveries made
during the last thirty years in the French language ; and the chasm
which separates them from the dreams of Manage and Roquefort can
only be compared to that which lies between the chemistry of Lavoisier
and the reveries of Raymond LuUi, or Van Helmont. It may there-
fore seem needless to wish to swell the catalogue with a new philo-
logical Dictionary ; but still I have decided on writing this book ; for
there is a blank to be filled up. In scientific subjects there is always
room for two kinds of books — those which teach established scientific
knowledge and transmit our learned acquisitions in a collective form,
and those which leave former discoveries alone, in order to at-
tempt new research, to work out the solution or the discussion of
problems hitherto untouched. Thus, in zoology, a treatise intended
for the general public would be silent as to all doubtful or unsettled
questions (such as the origin of species, or the like), and would occupy
itself solely with the minute proof of established truths : but if on
the other hand the treatise were addressed to the narrower class of
professed naturalists, it would be satisfied with simply stating known
facts (assuming their proof to be known by the reader) and would set
itself specially to elucidate by new observations or hypotheses those
problems which were yet uncertain.
This distinction applies with equal force to etymological Dictionaries,
according as they address themselves to students of philology only
or to the general literary public : in the former case the main task
of the author will be to attempt unsolved etymological problems,
simply stating established etymologies without stopping to give the
proofs. This has been done by Diez, Scheler, and Littr^, who have
been more anxious to discover or explore unknown regions than to
descril2£_the^^nown. But by the side of these works, which assume
in the reader a previous acquaintance with philological principles and
a knowledge of the position of each question that comes up, there is
room for another Dictionary which shall take the science in its pre-
sent condition, shall provisionally regard the etymology of all words
whose origin is still under discussion as unknown, shall limit itself
to the statement of etymologies already settled, and shall then
lay before the eyes of the reader all the philological principles
on which these interesting results depend. Of such a kind is this
manual of the science of etymology which I have endeavoured
to make, in the full persuasion that, imperfect as it is, it may yet
render some service to the cause of higher education^.
/j ^ M. Breal, Professor in the College of France, has admirably pointed out the
/ dangers of ' a method which professes to explain everything, and does not know
^^ how to resign itself to be ignorant of many things.' For education nothing is so
/': mischievous to the authority of a science as an inconclusive discussion.
i
AUTHORS PREFACE,
As an example of the difference between the two methods, let
us take the two words marcassin and pourrir. The etymology of
marcassin is unknown ; and while Diez and Littrd discuss the hypo-
theses already started as to the origin of the word, and throw out new
suggestions, I content myself with the simple statement that here is
a blank in our knowledge, and so I leave it. For in education uncer-
tainty is worse than ignorance, and the maxim ' in dubiis abstine '
finds its application. But under the word pourrir, whose etymology
[l(from Lat. putrere) is well known, Littrd and Scheler merely
[Imention the Latin word, and do not stop to explain ; but in my
[•JDictionary I set myself to prove it, and to show how putrere becomes
\pourrir, in answer to the questions, Why such and such a change?
;Have the Latin letters been altered by chance .? or Is there any
invariable law of change .? Has putrere become pourrir all at once,
or have there been successive changes, letter by letter? and can one fix
the steps of the process in their chronological order ^? — questions
which a Dictionary professing to teach ' laymen ' (as the Germans
would say) the science of etymology cannot possibly neglect.
' Scientific etymology,' says M. Brdal, ' does not consist in a vague
statement of the affinity which may exist between two words ; it must
' track out, letter by letter, the history of the formation of a word, and
show all the intermediate stages through which it has passed.'
Thus, in the example taken above, one must show that the u of
putrere has passed into on {pourrir), like ursus, ours\ surdus,
sourd; turris, tour; — that the Latin tr becomes rr, like latronem,
hirron; nutrire, nqurrir ; — lastly, that the long e of putrere is
represented by the French i, like tenere, ienir ; abolere, abolir, &c.
The philologer, when he has reached this point, has done but half his
work ; he has shown that pourrir answers, letter for letter, to putrere ;
he must now show how this change has come about : we have as yet
only the end-links of the chain, we must find the intermediate and
connecting ones. Between the grub and the butterfly the naturahst
studies all the different conditions of the chrysalis ; between the Latin
and the French we find, on the one side the Low Latin, on the other
the Early French. Thus pourrir has not leapt at one bound from
putrere : Latin MSS. of the Merovingian period show us that the
word became first putrire, then pudrire ; whence the earliest French
form podrir, whence follows porrir, and lastly pourrir. By what
slow and almost insensible changes has the Latin word slipped into
^ Our remarks on the three Dictionaries of Diez, Littre, and Scheler, must not
■ be taken to indicate any want of esteem for such admirable works. Far from
challenging their method I seek only to support it by supplementing it ; methods
must vary according to the end proposed, the audience addressed. Let me seize
this opportunity of expressing my hearty gratitude for the advantages I owe to
these masters in the science of etymology, and to their labours.
author's preface,
French ! — tr has been successively softened into dr, thence into rr ;
u passes through o into ou ; and, as one can prove by the steps taken,
the Latin word has never accomplished more than one of these
changes at a time. Thus penetrating by means of a strict
analysis into the innermost organisation of language, one sees that
living words change and grow, and that Latin and French, for ex-
ample, are in reality only two successive conditions of one language.
By patient study, by careful comparison of thousands of little facts,
insignificant by themselves, etymological science has been able to
prove that languages, like plants or animals, are born, grow, and die,
according to definite determinable laws. This fact saves us from the
reproach of lingering over petty details. * Every building raised on
abstract ideas,' says Buflfon, in his noble language, ' is a temple
dedicated to a lie.' It is high time that men should abandon meta-
physical speculations as to the origin of human speech, and betake
themselves to the humbler observation of facts : for they alone can
lead us on to a just conception of the laws of language ; and one
may apply to them the saying of Quinctilian, ' Parva quidem, sed
sine quibus magna non possent consistere,' — these are but details
indeed, yet without them general principles could not stand.
A. B.
VOUVRAY,
September 3, 1868.
CONTENTS,
INTRODUCTION.
BOOK I.
Of the Rules to be followed in Etymological investigations
Chap. i. Phonetics
ii. History
iii. Comparison
iv. Variations of meaning
V. Conclusion
BOOK II, Etymological Elements of the pRENcri Tongue
Part I, Elements of Popular Origin
Chap. i. The Latin element
ii. The Celtic element
iii. The Germanic element .
iv. The Greek element
Part ii. Elements of Learned Origin
Part hi. Elements of Foreign Origin
Chap. i. Words of Provengal origin
ii. Words of Italian origin
iii. Words of Spanish origin
iv. Words of German origin
v. Words of English origin
vi. Words of Slavonic origin
vii. Words of Semitic origin
viii. Words of Oriental origin
ix. W^ords of American origin
Part rv. Elements of Various Origin
Chap. i. Words of Historical origin
ii. Words of Onomatopoetic origin
iii. Words of Unknown origin
iv. Etymological statistics of the French Tongue
m
iv
vi
ix
xiv
xvi
xvii
xvii
xix
xxii
xxiv
XXV
xxvii
xxix
XXX
xxxiii
xxxiv
XXXV
XXXV
XXXV
xxxvii
XXX vii
xxxvii
xxxvii
xxxviii
xxxix
xli
CONTENTS,
PAGE
BOOK III. Phonetics, or the Study of Sounds. .... xlii
"Part i. Description of Sounds xliii
Chap. i. The vowels xlv
ii. History of the Latin vowels . . . liii
iii. The Latin diphthongs .... Ixxvii
iv. The Latin consonants .... Ixxix
Part n. The Principles which rule the Permutations of Language . xcv
Part m. Exceptions to Phonetics. Effect of Corruption on the
Formation of the French Language .... xcvii
Part iv. Derivation c
Section i. Derivation of substantives ci
Chap. i. French substantives derived from Latin sub-
stantives . . . . . . ci
ii. French substantives derived from Latin adjec-
tives cii
iii. French substantives derived from Latin pre-
positions cii
iv. French substantives derived from Latin verbs cii
Section ii. Derivation of adjectives cvi
Section iii. List of nominal suffixes cvii
Chap. i. Accented cvii
ii. Atonic cxxii
Section iv. Verbal suffixes cxxv
Chap. i. Accented cxxv
ii. Atonic cxxv
Section v. Diminutive suffixes cxxvi
List of Abbreviations ex. viii
ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY 1-376
INTRODUCTION.
BOOK I.
OF THE RULES TO BE FOLLOWED IN ETYMOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATIONS.
Axiomata a particularibus rite et ordine ahstracta nova particularia rursus facile
indicant et designant, itaque scientias reddunt activas. — Bacon, Novum Organon, i. 24.
§ 1. Etymology, which investigates the origin of words and the laws
of the transformation of languages, is a new science. It is scarcely
thirty years since it became one of the sciences of observation ; and
the good work it has since done has speedily won for it among the
historical sciences a place which it can never lose.
Before attaining its present precision, etymology — like every other
science, and perhaps more than any other — passed through a long
period of infancy, of uncertain groping and effort, during which it
subsisted chiefly on arbitrary relations, superficial analogies, and
fanciful combinations.
'One can scarcely imagine how arbitrary was the search for
etymologies while it was solely an attempt to connect words at
haphazard by their apparent resemblance, without any farther proof.
The dreams of Plato's Cratylus, the absurd etymologies of Varro and
Quinctilian, the philological fancies of Menage in the seventeenth
century, are known to every one. There was no difficulty in con-
necting jeiine with Jeune, for youth is the morning of life, and one
rises fasting. Most frequently one word was derived from another of
an entirely different form, and to fill up the gap between them,
fictitious intermediates were invented. Thus Menage derived rat from
the Latin mus ! " They must have said, first mus, then muratus, then
ratus, then rat!' Nay, farther, they went so far as to suppose that an
object could derive its name from a quality the opposite of that which
that name denoted, because affirmation provokes negation, and so,
. 'f b
i. INTRODUCTION.
for instance, they affirmed that lucus came from luoere, " quia non
lucet."'^
At last, the dreams of etymologists became proverbial, and this
branch of human knowledge fell into utterrtiost discredit. How then
has this confused heap of erudite error given place to an established
science of etymology? Simply by the discovery and application of
the comparative method, the method of the natural sciences. * Com-
parison is the chief instrument of science. Science is made up of
general facts ; scientific knowledge is the formation of groups, the
establishment of laws, consequently the separation of the general out
of the particular. Now, if we would compel facts to surrender to us
their inner meaning, we must draw them together, explain them by
one another, in other words compare them.
'Every one knows something of the discoveries of comparative
anatomy. We know how the study of the structure of animals, and
the comparison of organs, whose infinite modifications form the diifer-
entiae of class, order, genus, have revealed to us, so to speak, the
plan of nature; have provided us with a solid foundation for our
classifications.' ^
Just so with languages also : here also comparison is doubtless as
ancient as observation; but there are two kinds of comparison,
or rather, two degrees of comparison through which the mind must
pass in succession.
§ 2. The first is hasty and superficial comparison, which was omni-
potent in all physical sciences down to the end of the seventeenth
century; it was satisfied with connecting beings or words by their
superficial resemblances. Thus, naturalists called the dolphin and the
whale fishes, by reason of their outer shape, their habits, their con-
stant living in the sea; and etymologists derived the word par esse
from the Greek irapfais ^, because of all words they knew this was the
one most like the French word, and they concluded, without any
further proof, that this was the origin of paresse : an easy proof indeed !
These arbitrary comparisons have been succeeded in our own days
by thoughtful and methodical comparison, an exact and scientific
method ; one not satisfied with outer resemblances or differences, but
seeking by careful dissection to penetrate to the essence and inner-
most analogies of things.
The anatomist now studies the internal structure of the whale, and
discerns that the conformation of its organs excludes it from the class
of fishes, and places it among the mammals. And the philologist,
instead of studying the mere outside of words, dissects them into their
elements, their letters ; observes their origin, and the way in which
they are transformed.
^ M. Reville, Les ancetres des europeens.
* E. Soberer, Etudes d'histoire et de critique, ^ See below, § 21.
H PHONETICS. iii
" It is by a strict application of this new method, by following facts
instead of trying to lead them, that modern philology has proved that
language is developed according to invariable laws, and follows in its
transformations certain necessary rules.
This book will lay out the principal characteristics of this natural
history of language: it will be found that they furnish the ety-
mologist with unexpected help, and are a valuable instrument, a
powerful microscope for the observation of the most delicate
phenomena.
§ 3. The instruments of observation are three in number : Pho-
netics, History, Comparis.on.
CHAPTER I.
Phonetics.
B
§ 4. Take any Latin letter, and ask what it has become in French
you will soon see that the transition has followed a regular course,
or, in other words, that each Latin letter passes into French in an
invariable way : thus e long usually becomes oi : as me, moi ; regem,
roi; legem, loi; te, toi ; se, sot; tela, toile ; velum, voile: ea be-
comes che ; caballus, cheval ; ea^inus, chemin ; canile, chenil :
o becomes ou ; tormentum, tourment ; vos, vous ; nos, nous ; sori-
cem, souris ; &c. We give the name of Phonetics ^ to the collection
of these laws of transformation.
The bearings of this discovery are plain enough ; these laws of
transformation once observed for each letter are a guiding line in
investigation, and stop us if we are on a wrong track ; if the derivation
does not satisfy the conditions of phonetic change, it is null and void.
Thus then the knowledge of the sum total of these transformations
from Latin to French letters^ is the first condition which must be fulfilled
if we would busy ourselves with etymology. If any one thinks this
preparatory study too minute or needless, we would remind him that
anatomy observes and describes muscles, nerves, vessels, with most
minute detail : this vast collection of facts may seem dry and tiresome ;
but yet, even as comparative anatomy is the basis of all physiology, so is
the exact knowledge of phonetics the starting-point for all etymology ;
from it alone the science gets its character of solidity and exactitude.
§ 5. We may then state this new principle as follows : — every ety-
mology which does not, according to the rules of permutation laid
down by phonetics, account for every letter kept, changed, or dropped,
must be set aside as worthless.
See below, § 37. ' Ibid. §§ 46, sqq.
b2
Iv INTRODUCTION.
Taking this principle as our guide, let us look, for example, for the
derivation of the word iai'/ue. One sees at once that the letters if
represent the Latin ct, as is found \Xi fait from factus; lait from
lactem ; fruit from fructus, &c.
Thus then the first part of the word will answer to a Latin form
lact ; what is the origin of the suffix -ue ? Now we can prove that
this suffix comes from the Latin suffix -uca \ as in verr-ue, verr-uca ;
charr-ue^ carr-uca, &c. Hence we arrive at the form lactuca, the
actual Latin name for a lettuce.
Thus it is seen that the search for etymologies corresponds to
researches in chemical analysis. When a substance is put into the
crucible and reduced into its elements, the chemist ought to find those
elements equivalent in weight to the original substance : in this case
the elements are the letters, and the analysis, that is, the etymology, is
uncertain until all the elements are accounted for .
j^ § 6. To sum up ; etymological research is subjected to two laws :
(i) No etymology is admissible unless it accounts for every one of the
letters of the word which it professes to explain; (2) In every etymo-
logy which involves a change of letters we must be able to produce
at least one example of a change thoroughly like the one suggested ;
otherwise, so long as no such example can be adduced, the attempted
etymology is valueless.
D
CHAPTER n.
History.
§ 7. Every Latin word has undergone two successive changes in its
descent to modern times : it has passed out of Latin into Old French,
out of Old French into Modern French : festa became first feste, then
fite. In searching for the origin of a French word it would be a great
mistake to speculate on it in its present condition, and to leap at one
bound back to the Latin : we ought first to enquire whether any intgr-
ni^ediateiprms exist in Old French which illustrate the transition and
mark the patH thirougli which the Latin word has passed down to the
present time. These intermediate steps lead us up to the point of
departure, and enable us to see with greater distinctness, and even
sometimes to discover without any further investigation, the original
word from which our French word is derived.
One example will explain clearly enough the difference which sepa-
rates the old from the new etymological method: formerly etymo-
logists were much divided in opinion as to the origin of the word
dme : some, thinking only of the sense, derived the word from the
* See below, § 237.
HISTORY. V
Latin anima, without being able to explain how the transformation
was accomplished ; others, thinking this transformation from anima to
dme too harsh, derived it from the Gothic ahnia (breath). The
dispute would have still been unsettled had not modern philo-
logy intervened with the solution of the problem in its hand. Substi-
tuting for imagination the observation of facts, modern philologers
laid it down that it is absurd to debate for ever over a word in its
present form, without troubling oneself with the changes it has under-
gone since the first beginning of the language ; and so, reconstructing
the history of this word by means of the study of early texts, they have
shewn that in the thirteenth c^ntury,it was written ^^a^^ in the de^yenth
aneme, in'lhe~tenth anime, a form which leads directly back to
anima. " ' ~
We can avoid mistakes only by observing step by step all the
intermediate forms, so as to study the gradual transformation of the
Latin word ; but even so, we ought to distinguish between two kinds
of intermediates, those of the old and those of the new philological
school. The first assumed at a venture a very dissimilar word as
the origin of the word under enquiry, and then, in order to connect
the two extremes, invented fictitious intermediates, which thus led them
on to the point they wished to reach. Manage, for example, thought
he found the origin of the word haricot in the Latin faba ; and, to fill
up the blank between, he added, 'People must have said faba, then
fabaricus, then fabaricotus, arieotus, haricot.' It is like a dream, to
listen to such lucubrations : they more than justified the laughter of
the wits,
* Alfana ^ vient ^equus sans doute,
Mais il faut convenir aussi
Qu'a venir de la jusqu'ici,
II a bien change sur la route.' ^
§ 8. But the intermediates which modern etymology demands are
of a different kind : the science now no longer asks what people ought
to have said, but what they did say. No more fanciful intermediates,
invented as they were wanted : It is enough to trace the word through
French texts from the nineteenth to the tenth century. Modern
etymology notes the first appearance of words, and observes their
changes age by age ; nothing is left to conjecture or invention. And
this exact observation is a preliminary but indispensable portion of
every etymological investigation: before passing on to the analysis
of a French word in its present state, one must try to find as many
examples as possible of the word in Old French.
^ Alfana is the name given by Ariosto to the steed of Gradasso. Menage
derives it from equus.
^ The epigram is by the Chevalier d'Aceilly.
vi INTRODUCTION.
Thus, instead of inventing an arbitrary series of intermediates, we
must collect under each word a series of examples taken from actual
documents, running back to the very origin of the French language.
These landmarks once established, we must go on to discover the
etymology, starting from the word as it stood at the very birthplace
of the language.
Thus then the comparison of Old French with Modern French —
two successive states, in fact, of one language— is absolutely indispens-
able. How much better do we understand that modulare is the parent
of motiler, when we see the intermediate steps— the Merovingian Latin
modlare, the old French modler of the eleventh century, molle of the
twelfth. This word becomes mouler by the same change of ol into
ou, which we find in fou from fol, cou from col, &c.^ We need not
have any doubts as to the meaning of the word ddur/^oriQ who will
no longer let himself be deceived {leurre), — when we have before us
the old form deleurre. In many cases we have lost the primitive
form in use in Old French, and have retained the diminutive, as
alouelte, moiiette, belette, whose primitives aloue, moue, bele, are gone.
We have no longer the old verbs lentir, freindre, penttr, oeuvrer, ver-
gonder, bouter ; but we have their compounds, retentir, enfreindre,
repent ir, de'soeuvrer, devergonde\ de'bouti : and it is important that the
etymologist should know all these forms, as, before we find the origin
of a word, we are bound to reduce it to its simplest form.^
CHAPTER m.
Comparison.
§ 9. When popular Latin gave birth to the French, it created four
other sister languages, formed, like the French, with amazing regu-
^ The chief reason why the French language is so perfect a model for
etymological study lies in the fact that these intermediary forms have an
ascertained existence. We learn from this birth and this development of
the French language, — in a historical age, well-known to us, — how such
languages as Latin and Greek (which are known only in their full age)
came first into being. This enquiry into the development of languages,
through the study of the French tongue, in which all the conditions re-
quired by the philologer are to be found, answers to the process in
chemistry which is styled ' une experience en 'vase close.''
^ Other examples of primitives lost in Modern French, but retained
solely in their derivatives, are to be seen under the words — accabler, beani,
compagnon, corset, criance, dernier, doleance, effroi, emoi, engeance, finance,
galant, herboriste, issue, laitance, mechant, mecreant, nuance, outrecuidance,
sure an, &c.
COMPARISON. vii
larity and similarity — the Proven9al, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese ;Mj
or, as the Germans would say, the Romance languages. Consequently, uf
we must use comparison between the Romance forms and the
French, as a touchstone by which to verify and confirm our hypo-
theses. We have, for instance, just shewn that laitue answers letter
for letter to lactuca. If this etymology is correct, the Italian lattuga,
the Spanish lechuga, must also come from the same word, their sense
being also the same. Hence we may gather that the ItaUan // and
the Spanish ch, came from the Latin ci, thus : —
Italian : noile from noctem ; otto, octo ; biscotto, biscoctus ; tratto,
tractus ; &c. ; — whence lattuga = lactuca.
Spanish: noche from nocteia ; oc/io, octo; discocho, hiacoctus; irecho,
tractus ; &c. ; — whence lechuga = lactuca.
Thus one sees how a comparison of the Romance languages with
the French confirms our'"pm[immary observations and verifies our
hypotheses. These comparisons have a farther use : they often shew
us the route we may follow. Between the Latin and the French the
Romance tongues stand in the same relation of space as Old French
does in relation of time : router seems less distant from rotulare when
the gap is filled up by the Proven9al rolar (early Prov. rotlar) and
Italian rotolare. Chou is directly related to caulis, through old
French chol, Spanish col, Proven9al caul : between coude and cubitus,
we find the Proven9al code, the old Spanish cohdo, the Italian cubito.
The stages between nourrir and nutrire are filled up when one has
passed through the three steps of Proven9al norrir, Catalan nudrir,
Italian nutrire. If, on the other hand, we study the chronological
sequence of the transformations of nutrire into the French language,
we shall see that the word was nudrire in Merovingian Latin, nodrir
in the eleventh century, norrir in the twelfth, nourrir in the thirteenth :
and thence we may conclude that it is a natural law of such develop-
ments, that the Romance languages off"er simultaneously to our sight,
and, as it were, in living examples, the same series of linguistic degra-
dations and dead forms that the French language sets before us at
different periods in its history : just as the globe shews us in different
parts the successive formations on its surface, while at the same time
we have those same beds ranged one under another in a vertical
series.-^
§ 10. By the side of thesejour Romance languages, the great divi-
sions of the Latin tongue, we have '"patois,'^vhich"are secondary divi-
^ Other examples of the value of the comparison of Romance forms for
French etymology may be found under the words courroucer, guere, pouj
tuer^ tuyaUj &c.
^
viii INTRODUCTION.
/ sions under each language. We have shewn elsewhere ^ that at first
there was no one literary language in France ; that, in the different
districts, the Latin was broken up into a like number of dialects —
Norman, Burgundian, Picard, French (i.e. the dialect of the inhabit-
ants of the He de France). We know by what succession of political
events, by the conquests of the Dukes of France, and the successive
augmentation of the royal domain, three of these dialects were ab-
sorbed at last in the fourth, the French, which, as it rose to the rank
of the one literary language, depressed the others into patois, at this
day slowly dying out in the country districts. These patois are not,
as is commonly thought, literary French corrupted in the mouth of
peasants, but they are the remains of ancient provincial dialects,
which, thanks to political events, have fallen from the position of
official and literary languages to that of simple patois.^ The history
of patois shews us their importance in the study of French etymology.
Side by side with the fo ur Romance languag es, which form as it were
four distinct colours, lie patois, filling up the intermediate spaces, and
providing us with all the secondary and intermediate stages : thus
regarded they throw a very strong light on many words. The bivalve
shell, called in Latin musculus, is moule in French. How can we
connect these words together, without passing through the Norman
patois moucle, then the Languedoc mouscle, which form the inter-
mediate links ? One can understand th^l/resaie and praesaga are the
same word by seeing the forms presaie in Poitou, and bresague
in Gascony.^
Even exceptions or corruptions of language often find their expla-
nation in patois. At the outset it would seem very strange that the
Old French ombril (the navel),* from umbilicus, should have become
novibril in or about the fifteenth century. But if we consider that the
Old' French aim (a hook), from hamus, has become naim in the
modern patois of Touraine, by an euphonic corruption of un-aim,
into un naim, whence h naim, we shall find that we have a clear
instance of the process which has converted un-ombril into un
nombril, le nombril.
^ 111 the Historical Grammar of the French 7ongue,-p. i8, sqq. English
translation.
^ In the same way the Tuscan obtained the supremacy over all the
other Italian dialects (the Milanese, Venetian, Neapolitan, Sicilian), which
dropped into the position of patois; and in Spain also, the Navarrois,
Andalusian, &c., gave place to the Castilian dialect, which became the
literary language of the whole country.
^ For other examples of the value of patois in etymological research, see
under the words coulis, godet, levis, nombril, &c.
* Ombril is the form used in Froissart (?)
VARIATIONS OF MEANING. ix
Thus one sees what manner of help etymology may expect to get
from the comparative study of patois. The li nguist can. .also, verify
this fact, which appears in all the Romance languages : in them, as also
in the patois, the Latin tongue becomes more dull and contracted the
farther itjs removed in space from Latimn. And thus the progress
of the Latin word is a kind of sensitive thermometer, which falls lower
and lower as we^g^o^ northwards, by a series of slow and insensible
degrees, not by a sudden leap or instantaneous change.
CHAPTER IV.
Variations of Meaning.
§ 11. Of the two elements which compose a word, its form and
meaning, we have now considered the first, its form, ' in space and
time,' as philosophers say — in space by means of Phonetics and Com-
parison, in time by me ans of ..Hkt_Qry_._ But the knowledge of the
history and changes of meaning in words is an indispensable instru-
merifnT'the study of forms. In this branch of the subject we may
study the history of the meaning either by following the changes in
its own language, or by instituting a comparison, setting the word side
by side with words of the same signification in other languages.
§ 12. History of Meaning. — If we compare a number of French
words with the Latin words whence they have sprung, we soon see
that most of them have changed in meaning as they have passed from
Latin to French, and have not retained their original intensity aiiH i
power. Sometimes the meaning is wider : carpentarius (a wheel- 1
Wright) becomes charpentier (a carpenter); caballus (a nag) has risen J
to nobility in cheval ; minare (to guide a cart, or a flock) is menerl^
(to lead generally) ; villa ( = a farmstead, and then = a hamlet) be-j
comes ville, a town.^ In other cases the sense is narrowed : passing \
from general to particular — ^jumentum (every kind of beast of burden) |
becomes jument (a mare) ; peregrinus (properly a stranger, one who i
travels) is restricted in pelerin to travellers to the Holy Land^ or
^ For other examples of expansion of sense see the words abonder, abon-
ner, acerer, accorder, accoster, agneau, alarme, alerte^ alter, arri-ver, bdtard,
beugler, boucher, bourg, corbeille, corneille, &c.
^ The Latin peregrinus (found in the form pelegrinus as e&rly as in
the Inscriptions) had already taken the sense of 'pilgrim' in Low Latin.
Thus Mapes, De Nugis Curialium, i. i8, has 'Miles quidam, a pago Bur-
gundiae .... venit Jerusalem peregrinus.'
It
X INTRODUCTION.
some other holy place; arista (fish-bone or ear of corn) has lost
its second meaning in ar^fe (a fish-bone); carruca (a chariot) be-
comes an agricultural cart in charrue}
Sometimes the abstract Latin word becomes concrete in French :
as punctionem (the act of pricking), tonsionem (the act of clipping),
morsus (the act of biting), become poin^otiy lotson, mors (used of
horses' bites) : similarly nutritionem is the act of nourishing, and
becomes nourrisson, one who nourishes.^
Sometimes, on the other hand, a Latin concrete word becomes
abstract or metaphorical in French : thus ovicula (a sheep) has pro-
duced the word ouailles, which in French ecclesiastical speech is used
of the flock of a spiritual pastor.^ It is clear that the French lan-
guage, having before it the many rich and slightly different senses of
the Latin word, takes one of its facets, regards it as if it were the only
one, and thus givesTTrth to the modern signification.
§ 13. But these changes of meaning do not merely take place in the
passage from Latin to French : * Consuetudo loquendi est in motu,'
says Varro (De Ling. Lat. ix. 17); and if we were to confine our-
selves to observing the history of the French tongue from the eleventh
century to the present time, we should find, even in the heart of the
language, many words whose sense has grown or shrunk as they have
passed from Old to Modern French. Words formerly used in a noble
or refined sense have fallen into the humblest and meanest condi-
tion : thus pectus (the breast) kept its original sense when it passed
into Old French ; and pis (from pectus, like lit from lectum, co7tfit
from confectum) meant at first the breast or chest ; in feudal speech
a man was said, in taking an oath, ' mettre la main au pis,' to lay his
hand on his breast. The word has gradually been restricted and
lowered to its present meaning.
Mutare has become muer (so remutare, commutare are remuer,
commuer). Muer, which had at first retained the whole energy of
the Latin word (so Froissart says : * les dieux et les deesses muoient
les hommes en bestes * '), presently was restricted to the moulting of
' For other examples of restriction of sense see the words ame, ampoule,
ancetre, andouitle, apothicaire, appeau, arche, billon, bdilan, botteux, brosse,
brouette, couper, &C.
^ For other examples see ablette, accessit, accoucher, aleruin, ambe, amble,
angelique, armee, artillerie, braire, cannelle, corset, defense, dejeuner, diner,
ecluse, engin, fort, habit, hiver, jour, maison, meute, mallet, poison, printemps,
quaterne, rouget, serre, su(;on, temoin, tenue, terne.
' For pther examples see barreau, cbambre, chancellerie, &c.
* Voltaire has still preserved this etymological signification in the lines
' Qui de Meduse eut vu jadis la tete
Etait en roc mue soudainement.'
HISTORY OF MEANING. xi
birds, the skin-shedding of certain beasts; — labourer (laborare, to
work) was restricted quite late to the sense of turning the soil.
Oresme, in the fourteenth century, in translating the Ethics of
Aristotle, says : * Les excellens medecins laboiirent moult a avoir
cognoissance des choses du corps.' Mardtre (from matraster)
meant only 'mother-in-law', or 'step-mother'; it later took the sense of a
' harsh and cruel step-mother.' Pre'au (from pratellum, Yikefleau from'\
flagellum) is literally a ' little meadow,' and kept this sense in old I
French; later ^ it was restricted to the meaning, a ' little meadow behind j
a prison,' where the prisoners take their exercise ; thence, the prison- \
court.^ By the side of these narrowings and diminutions of meaning [
we must notice some cases in which it is extended and enlarged.^ Many \
terms of trade, or technical and special words, have thus entered into
general use : and this has been specially the case with hunting terms.
Attraper was at first ' to catch in a trap' ; leurrer to ' call in the falcon
with the lure'; — one who refuses to be deceived by the lure is a
de'leurre {p\d form of the modern deliire). When a falcon was caught
after his second moulting season, he was hard to tame, and fierce, or»
as the falconers said, hagard ; whence Fr. hagard, Eng. haggard, came
to have the sense of wild, then wan and wasted. But when the bird
was taken from the nest, it was called mats (nidacem from nidus)
and the weakness of young falcons gave the word nzais, niaiserie, to
express the simpleness and awkwardness of young people who ' are
scarcely out of their nest.' Another term of falconry is the expression
des siller les yeiix (formerly de'ciller). It was usual to sew up the eyes
of falcons to tame them, an operation expressed by the word ciller :
when the bird was tame enough, they re-opened its eyes {de'ciller^ by
cutting the thread which sewed together the eyelids {cils)}
It was, similarly, very natural that man should give to the machines
invented by him in order to economise his energy, or to -augment the
effect of his work, the names of beasts of burden or of other animals
which paid him service, or interested him by some fanciful analogy.
Thus the Latin aries is a ram, a buttress, and a war-engine ; capre-
^ Marot, iii. 308 (sixteenth century), writes —
'Bientost apres, allans d'accord tous quatre
Par les preaux toujours herbus s'esbattre.'
^ For examples see atterrer, dais, depit, ennui, etonner, fer, froisser, gene,
granjelle, manant, &c.
J For examples see arri'ver, aubaine, avanie, banal, banlieue, boucher,
debardeur, &c.
* For other examples see abois, ackarner, agacer, aburir, aigrette, ama-
doner, ameuter (?), appas, bejaune, beugler, blottir, boucher, braconnier, brisees,
brouter, bute, butor, curee, emerillonne , enjoleur, /ureter, herisser, bobereaux,
ruser, sacre, taniere, trace, &c.
xu INTRODUCTION.
olus has the two meanings of a chamois and of stays ; corvus is a
raven, a grappling-hook, and a crane, &c. Similarly, the French
language gives this kind of double meaning to several words : thus
mouton is a wether and a rammer; corbeau, a raven and a corbel;
grue, a crane and the engine which bears the same name ; b^lier, a
ram and an engine of war ; chevre, a goat and a crab ; chevron, a kid
and a rafter. In many cases the earlier sense, that of the animal, has
disappeared from Modern French, and that of the implement has
survived alone : thus poutre, a beam, signifies also a mare in Old
French : * De toutes parts les poutres hennissantes,' says Ronsard
(sixteenth century). This word, originally poltre, Italian poledro,
comes from the Latin puUetrmn, a derivation of puUus, a foal,
and found in the Germanic laws; thus in the Lex Salica, tit. xl.
(sixth century), we read ' Si quis pulletrum furaverit.* Again, just
as equuleus signifies a young horse, and a block, and the French
chevalet is a little horse and a buttress, so poutre passed from the
sense of a mare to that of a beam by the application of that well-
known metaphor which likens a supporting piece of wood to an
animal which bears up a burden.^
So also land and water transport are assimilated, sea-terms being
applied to land journeys : thus debarcadere, derived from debarquer, to
disembark, is used for the terminus of a road or railroad ; the platform
of a station is called quai, a wharf: some kinds of omnibus are called
gondoles or galeres ; coche signifies first a barge for travelling, then a
coach; from caboter to coast from port to port comes cabotin, a
strolling player who goes from town to town, &c.^
§ 14. To complete this series we must quote some very singular meta-
phors which come from the vulgar Latin, and prove what a ^eat part
the common_jpeople took in the formation-Qf^the Frendf language":
from testa (a brokehvessel), gurges (a gulf),b6tellus (aTpudding), pellis
(a fur hide), come the French tete, gorge, boyau, peau ; and the classical
words caput, guttur, intestinum, cutis, are set aside. The French
tongue adopted these metaphors from the vulgar Latin : testa means
a *skuir in Ausonius, botellus an 'intestine' in Tertullian. These
fanciful metaphors of the Roman common folk are not at all as-
tonishing, if one remembers that in French slang a head is likened
to a ball, the legs to skittles, the hand to pincers, &c. By the side of
these metaphors, sprung from the Latin and transmitted thence to the
French, there are a great number of native growth, and charming
in their simplicity : thus the people have given the name of bergeron-
nette ( = petite bergere, little shepherdess) to the wagtail, a meadow-
loving bird; the bouvreuil (bovariolus from bovarius, = a little
* For other examples see demoiselle, grue, &c.
^ For other examples see canard, &c.
COMPARISON OF MEANING. xiii
bouvier, or neat-herd) is the bullfinch, a bird which follows the herds,
and Hngers about in their neighbourhood.
§ 15. Comparison of Meaning. — What we have already said is
enough to shew how much more difficult it is to study the mean-
ings than the forms of words. In dealing with the latter we have
simply to deal with regular and observable changes. Climate and
race have given to each of the peoples of Gaul, Italy, and Spain,
a vocal apparatus differing in certain inflexions of pronunciation ;
and according to these, the Latin language has been transformed
with an unchanging regularity into three diflferent languages. This
part of philology, styled Phonetics, is in reality a part of Natural
History, for it depends, after all, on the physical conditions special to
certain families of languages and peoples. In fact it is as much
dependent on material conditions as the study of meanings is in-
dependent of them. While the study of form can only have in view
a single group or family of languages of common origin, the study of
meanings attacks all languages alike, observes in all the progress of
the human mind, and passes out of the domain of natural sciences
into that of psychology : etymology draws largely on this comparison )
of metaphors which explain and cdhfirm the derivations suggested \
for certain words, even when we cannot give a full explanation \
of them. Thus, it is curious that popular language should have I
called a certain bird (the wren) roitelei [= peiii roi, kinglet); but the ^
etymology becomes absolutely certain if we compare the Latin, Greek,
German, Dutch, Swedish, Spanish, and Portuguese, and find the same
metaphor in all.^ This coincidence does not indeed explain_the_cause A^
of the name^, but it proverifs~exrstence,"ahd"the correctness of the
derivatlonr ""It makes it easier to understand that the Latin causa
became chose, when one notices that the German <^ac^e has the
meaning of both these words. We are certain that chardonnet, the
goldfinch, means the bird which feeds on the grains of the thistle,
chardon, when we see that in Latin the bird is called carduelis, from
carduus, and in Greek aKavQX's, from uKavdos, in German 2)iftelfitif, the
* thistle-finch,' in Dutch distelvink, in Italian cardellino, from cardo^ a
thistle. We have just said that bouvreuil (from bovariolus, diminutive
^ The wren, roitelet, is in all the following languages called by names
which are connected with the word which signifies a king in each case :
Latin, regulus, from regem ; Greek, ^aaCKiaKos, from IBaatXevs ; in Ger-
rnan, 3*iunfonig (the ' hedge king ') ; in Dutch, Winter koningje (the ' winter-
king'); fti Swedish, fugl-konung, and in DdLvash, fugl-konge (the 'bird-
king') ; in Spanish, reyezuelo, from rey ; in Portuguese, reisete, from rei.
^ The origin of this metaphor must be looked for in the legends of the I
Indo-Germanic races, under the guidance of the principles of comparative ^ '
mythology.
xiv INTRODUCTION.
of bovariuB, a neat-herd) signifies a little neat-herd ; its English name
bullfinch, and one of its Gefman names, !i8u(lenkipcr (the bull-biter '),
join in confirming this derivation. Contree comes from Low Latin
contrata ( = the land stretched out before one), and contrata comes
from contra : here the German ©cgenb from the prep, gccjen ( = over
against) explains and confirms the derivation. DejeUner (to break
one's fast) from jeilner (like defaire, horn /cure), is used of the
morning meal, just like the English breakfast, which means exactly
the same thing. Corset is a diminution of corps'^, a little body — a
metaphor confirmed by other like expressions, as the German HJeibcfcen
(Ceib^, a body); English boddice, from body, Italian cor petto {corpo,
a body). It seems quite natural that habitus, which signifies an
habitual manner of being, should become in French habit, dress,
when we see that the Greek (txw^^ ^^^d the Italian costuma have the
same double sense of manner of being, habit and clothing. It is by
making a delicate and careful comparison of the operations of the
human mind that the etymologist is enabled to explain the origin of
all such metaphors, which spring either from caprice, or the imagina-
tion of the people.^
CHAPTER V.
Conclusion.
§ 16. By shewing that words have growth and history, and that, like
plants or animals, they pass through regular transformations — in
shewing in a word that, here as elsewhere, law rules, and that it is
possible to lay down strict laws by which one language is derived
from another — modern philologers have established the firm basis
of comparative etymology, and have made a science of that which
I seemed doomed to abide in the region of imagination and individual
caprice.
^ Originally written cors ; the p was added by the learned after the
fourteenth century. At first the word corset was not used, but corps
(the corset being regarded as the body of the skirt) : and in the eighteenth
century, Rousseau found fault with the tightness of ladies' corps. Corset
simply means a ' little body.'
^ We must not imagine from instances like this that the German
language has taught the French its method of procedure : the resemblance
springs from the identity of the operations of the human mind in general,
and is not transmitted from language to language.
^ For other examples of the value of this comparison of meaning in
other languages see arborer, helette, belier, berner^ blaireau, ble, boucher,
bourdon, brocket, broder, cabus, chardonnet, &c.
CONCLUSIVE REMARKS. xv
Of old, etymology tried to explain a priori the origin of words
according to their apparent likenesses^ or differences^ : modern ety-
mology, applying the method of the natural sciences, holds that words
ought to explain themselves, and that, instead of inventing systems,
we ought to observe facts, by the help of three instruments; (i) the
History of the word, which by regular transitions leads us up to the
derivation we are seeking, or, at any rate, brings us nearer to it;
(2) Phonetics^ which gives us the rules of transition from one
language to another, rules to which we must submit blindly, or
we shall lose our way; (3) Comparison, which assures and confirms
the results arrived at.
To the fantastic aberrations of learned men of old is due the
discredit into which etymology had sunk ; but it is by the strict
application of this method and these principles that comparative
etymology has risen in our days to the dignity of a science.
^ For example, the etymologists of the seventeenth century deduced me,
te, se, njos, nos, tres, heur, from the Latin me, te, se, vos, nos, tres, hora,
without any suspicion that these words, which have certainly produced
moi, tdi, soi, 'vous, nous, trots, heure, could not possibly have produced any-
thing else. They similarly deduced boucher from bouche (as being the man
who caters for the mouth), while the history of this word shews that it
means the man who kills the houc or buck ; they derived cordonnier from
cordon, forcene from force, while the Old French forms cordouanier and
forsene prove at once that such derivations are impossible ; similarly they
connected ecuyer and ecurie with the Latin equus, which has in reality no
relation whatever to either of them. We may, in fact, always to lay down
as an invariable axiom in etymology the principle that * t<u)o identical words
are never deri-ved from one another.''
^ Were we not acquainted with the successive progress of etymological
transformation, we could not believe that pou and peduculum., age and
aetaticum, ^«^ and craticulum, y^ « and fatutum* were in reality the
same words.
BOOK II.
ETYMOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE FRENCH
TONGUE.
§ 17. A VERY brief re'sum^ of the history of the French Tongue
is necessary, if we would understand what is to follow.
The * Vulgar Latin/ carried into Gaul by Caesar's soldiers and by
colonists, quickly swallowed up the original Celtic language (see
below, pp. xix-xxii), and four centuries later was deeply affected, as to
its vocabulary, by the invasion of the Germanic tribes ; more than five
hundred German words establishing themselves in the Gallo-Roman
language (see pp. xxii-xxiv): this language, thus modified by the intro-
duction of barbarous words, under the influence of slow and insensible
changes, became a new language, the French tongue, which shews
itself independent of the Latin from the ninth century. Between the
eighth century and the eleventh this language advances, and in the
twelfth century it may be regarded as fully formed; to this ancient
and popular foundation are added successively, in the thirteenth
century, a number of Oriental words, introduced by the Crusades;
in the sixteenth century a certain number of Italian and Spanish
words ; in the eighteenth, terms of German origin ; in the nineteenth,
English words; to these must be added words borrowed by the
learned from the Latin and Greek, between the fourteenth century
and our own day.
To sum up, the French language has two great deposits of words :
one before the twelfth century, the unconscious work of the people,
formed from the three elements, Latin, Celtic, German; the other
later than the twelfth century, formed on the one hand of elements
borrowed from the modern, on the other hand from the ancient
anguages.
Thus then French words must be divided into three classes, —
words of popular origin ; words of learned origin ; words of foreign
origin.
THE LATIN ELEMENT.
PART I.
ELEMENTS OF POPULAR ORIGIN.
CHAPTER I.
The Latin Element.
§ 18. As we have shewn in the Historical Grammar of the French
Tongue, we may study any language from four points of view : —
1. The study of sounds, of the origin and history of each letter,
called Phonetics.
2. The study of words, of the manner of their creation or defor-
mation ; this is called ' the formation of words!
3. When we have thus studied the constituent elements of words,
and their aggregation, we have still to consider how words are
modified when they are brought together ; this is Inflexion (divided
into declension and conjugation).
4. Lastly, Syntax shews us how words may be grouped together so
as to form phrases or sentences.
In describing the transition from Latin to French we must review
these four divisions in succession ; the third Book of this Introduction
will give us the rules which have guided the Latin letters in their transi-
tion into French ; — we have elsewhere studied the changes which the
Latin declensions and conjugations have undergone ; how the article
was created to replace case inflexions; how declension lost one
gender, the neuter, and at first was reduced from six cases to two in
Merovingian Latin and Old French, and then from two cases to one at
the end of the thirteenth century ; how conjugation lost the passive
voice, created the auxiliary verbs etre and avoir to take the place of
the Latin compound tenses, and gave a new form to the future : we
do not propose to reconsider these purely grammatical points.
As to vocabulary, such French words as are the simple product of the
slow development of the ' vulgar Latin' differ, necessarily and essentially,
from those formed from classical Latin ; for sometimes the vulgar and
the classical Latin had two different forms of the same word to
express the same idea; thus doubler, avant, ivraie, come from the
vulgar forms duplare, abante, ebriaca, while the classical forms
c
0/
xviii INTRODUCTION.
duplicare, ante, ebrius have produced no French words : at other
times the people and the learned employ two words of entirely different
origin ; thus semaine, chemin^ bataille^ batser, iourner correspond, not to
the classical forms hebdomas, via, pugna, osculari, verti, but to the
popular words septimana, caminus, batalia, basiare, tornare.
Many other Latin words have disappeared from different causes ;
some because they had not sufficient hold on the language, or
sufficient power of resistance — as e.g. spes gave way to speres, espoir,
a word to be found in Ennius ; others because they would have pro-
duced the same form in French as was being produced by some other
word of different meaning, — as bellum disappeared because of
bellus, beau, for the French word for 'war' derived from bellum
must also have been beau; — lastly, many synonyms have perished,
— thus fluvius, fleuve, has extinguished amnis and flumen ; janua
and ostium have perished before porta, porte.
Next after these modifications of the Latin vocabulary we must
enumerate briefly the changes introduced in the formation of words
either in derivation or in composition. Of these the most important
is the addition of diminutive suffixes to Latin primitives, without any
change in sense : thus we have stumus, sturnellus, ^tourneau ;
corvuB, corvellus, corbeau ; passer, passerellus, passereau. The
* Lingua Romana rustica,' the ' field-Latin,' had already shewn this
influence by giving the full meaning of the primitive to its diminutives,
as apicula for apis, comicula for comix, &c., whence we have in
French chevreuil from capreolus, abeille from apicula, agneau from
agnellus, &c., in which the diminutive signification is entirely lost
in the French.
Other means have also been employed to create new substantives
from existing verbs. The Latin language had the remarkable power
of being able to make substantives out of its past participles: e.g.
peccatum properly the p. p. of peccare, scriptum of scribere, fossa
of fodere. The French language has carried on this grammatical
process, and has thereby produced thousands of substantives, as regu,
fait, dH, the p. p. of recevoir,faire, devoir. And this is especially the
case with feminine participles, as vue, e'touffe'e, venue, avenue, &c. ^
Next after the past participle comes the infinitive, whence are
formed verbal substantives, about three hundred of them, answering
to no Latin form, but derived directly from a French verb by cutting
off the infinitival termination : thus, the Latin apportare, appellare,
purgare have produced the French verbs apporter, appeler,purger, and
these verbs in their turn, by dropping the verbal ending, become the
verbal substantives apport, appel, purge, which have no corresponding
substantives in Latin. But Latin and French are but successive con-
ditions of the same language, and there is scarcely any grammatical
* For details, see the Historical Grammar, pp. 140, 141.
THE CELTIC ELEMENT. xix
procedure employed in French whose germ cannot be found in Latin :
so the Latins also created their verbal substantives by means of the
infinitive ; from notare, copulare, probare, &c., came the substantives
nota, copula, proba ^.
Thus, too, it is after the Latin pattern that the French language has
formed new verbs by means of the participles of existing verbs : from
edere, cogere, quatere, detrahere, videre, they had formed, by
adding the infinitival ending to the participles editus, cogitus,
quassus, detractus, visus, the verbs editare, cogitare, quassare,
detractare, visere ; and the * rustic Latin ' built a crowd of verbs on
this plan; it rejected such primitives as uti, radere, audere, &c., and
from the participles usus, rasus, ausus, produced the verbs usare,
rasare, ausare, &c., whence have sprung the French verbs user,
raser, oser, &c.
These are the principal changes introduced into the structure of
the Latin language by the Gallic peoples^. We shall see in the
Etymological Dictionary, and in the next book of the Introduction
{Phonetics), through what intermediate stages the Latin, thus mo-
dified in inflexion, syntax, formation of words, passed before reaching
its present state in Modern French.
CHAPTER IL
The Celtic Element.
%
§ 19. We need not again ^ discuss the reasons of the absorption of
the Gallic language by the Latin : let us simply state that two centuries
after Caesar's conquest, the Celtic tongue had all but disappeared
from Gaul. Still that language did not perish without leaving behind
it slight but yet distinct traces. Thus, the Romans noticed that their
^ The subject of verbal substantives has been exhaustively treated by
M. Egger, in an admirable article in the Memoires de V Academie des In-
scriptions, 24. 2, a model of sure and acute scientific study, which leaves
his successors no gleanings in the field which he has reaped.
^ There are many more modifications, but they will be found in the
body of the Dictionary ; we here attempt only a general view.
^ See the Historical Grammar, pp. 4, 5. It is so difficult to describe
the etymological elements of the French tongue without reproducing
the history of the language, that the reader must excuse our frequent
references to the book in which that history has already been given ;
the introduction of certain elements in the language can only be ex-
plained by a historical account of the vicissitudes of that language ; and
thus we have more than once repeated here what we have already said
elsewhere.
c 2
IX INTRODUCTION.
galerita (the crested lark) was called 'alauda' by the Gauls; that
fermented barley, theii; zythum, was in Gaul ' cervisia ' ; they
accepted these words as incomers; and from them, six centuries
later, sprang the French words alouette \ cervoise.
This is also true of bee, Iteue, alose, braie, banne, arpent, brasseur,
bouleau, marne, which answer to beccus, leuca, alosa, braca, benna,
arepennis, brace (Pliny), betula, margula, words which Roman
writers cite as borrowed from the Celtic. There are also many Latin
words, which have not descended to the French, which are stated to
be of Gallic origin: such are ambactus, bardus, druida, galba,
rheda, soldurius. These isolated words, and certain other such^,
especially names of places, are all that are due to the Gallic language ;
and indeed, to speak more exactly, nothing is due to it, for these
words have reached the French through the Latin ; they did not
p^ss straight from Celtic to French, but underwent a translation
into Latin first. In short, these words " are so few that one may
fairly say that the influence of the Celtic on the French has been
insensible.
' Thus, while the French nation is in the main Celtic, the French
language has preserved but a few words which can be traced to a
Celtic origin : — a singular fact, and one which shews even better than
history can do, how absorbing was the Roman power.
The Gallic language, thrust back into Armorica by the Roman
conquerors, survived in isolation for centuries ; in the seventh century
its strength was renewed by the immigration of refugees from Wales.
The Bretons resisted the Frankish conquest even as they had resisted
the Roman ; the Low Breton dialect of the present day is the direct
heir of the old Celtic speech. It has a considerable literature, tales,
national ballads, plays, — which, however, date no farther back than
the fourteenth century. For a thousand years it has been incessantly
pressed, in its last refuge, by the French language, and it is there-
fore now very different from the original Celtic : the original Celtic
elements have necessarily suffered degradation from eighteen centuries
of use, and, besides, many strange, that is, French, words have forced
themselves in. And thus many Breton words run in pairs, the
^ Alauda is not the immediate parent of alouette, but of aloue, which
existed in Old French ; alouette is its diminutive ; cp. cwvette and cwve^
amourette and amour, &c.
^ Bagage, balai, barre, betoine, bidet, bouge, bran, bruyere, bassin, claie,
cormoran, cruche, darne, dartre, dru, galerne, garotter, gober, goeland, goelette,
harnais, houle, jarret, lais, matras, pinson, pot, quai, ruche, sornette, toque,
truand, 'vassal. And beside these there are the words which modem
history has introduced, as loans from the Latin (such as barde, ambacte,
druide), or from the Low Breton (as dolmen, men-hir\
THE CELTIC ELEMENT. xxi
one old and of Celtic birth, the other newer, French in origin, and
dressed up with a Celtic termination : thus the French word
juste is, in Breton, either egwirion or just,
k trouble „ „ enkrezet or trouhlet,
^^ ■' colere „ „ buanegez or coler, &c.
Of these synonyms, the first column {egwirion, &c.) is of old words
of Celtic origin; the second {just, &c.) is of French words slightly
altered. It would not have been needful to insist on this simple
matter, had not some bold speculators in the eighteenth century,
struck with this resemblance, concluded at once that such words as
just, trouhlet, &c. were not French importations, but were rather the
originals of the corresponding French words. Le Brigant and the
illustrious La Tour d'Auvergne (as bad as a philologer as he was
good as a patriot) declared that the French language was derived
from the Low Breton ^ They would have been rather astonished had
they seen the proof that the contrary is the case, and that these words
{just, troublet, &c.) instead of being the parents, are the children of
the French language, French words corrupted and concealed under
a Celtic termination. These etymological follies, which Voltaire
derided under the name of ' a Celtomania,' formed the amusement of
the eighteenth century ; the * Celtomaniacs ' gave loose rein to their
fancies, and declared that the Celtic was the language of Paradise,
and that Adam, Eve, the serpent himself, talked Low Breton. »
One would have thought that, after all the discoveries of modern
philology, which has cleared up the Latin origin of the French lan-
guage, and has worked out by observation the laws of its transforma-
tion, there would have been an end of such fancies; on the contrary,
the Celtomaniacs are as lively as ever, and we may read in the
Memoirs of the Celtic International Congress, that ' France, whose
magnanimity impels her to the four corners of the earth to succour
the oppressed, will never allow the literature whence hers has sprung
to languish at her side. The Pelican feeds her young with her
blood; we have never heard that they have shewn themselves
ungrateful for such unparalleled generosity. But I am wrong: —
such ingratitude does exist! The Celtic tongue has nourished all
^ These unfortunate mistakes have also had a worse result — that of
throwing undeserved discredit on Celtic studies. Instead of trying to
p. ove that the French language springs from the Celtic, as the Low Breton
philologers have done, they ought to have studied the Celtic in and for itself,
and to have written the comparative history of the dialects of Brittany,
Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, as has been done for Italian, Spanish, and
French. It is to a German, Zeuss, that Breton philologists owe the com-
pletion of this task, in an excellent work, the Grammatica Celtica, published
at Leipzig in 1853.
^
zxU INTRODUCTION.
the languages of Europe, and specially the French, with her best
blood: must we then say of France what we cannot say of the
Pelican's offspring — s/ie has forgotten her mother * ?^
CHAPTER III.
The Germanic Element.
§ 20. Since the formation of the French language, it has received a
considerable number of German words, brought in by the invasion of
the Germanic tribes. Three successive strata of such imported words
may be noted : (i) those prior to the invasion introduced by the bar-
barians who served under the Roman eagles, such as burgus, used by
Vegetius for a fortified work; (2) war-terms, feudal-terms, &c., which
Franks, Goths, and Burgundians brought in with them ; (3) a great
number of sea-terms, imported in the tenth century by the Normans.
Under these three heads there are, in all, about 450 words ; if we
were to add German words imported into Modern French, the number
might easily be doubled. This invasion of foreign words seems to be
the necessary consequence of the adoption of barbaric manners and
institutions. How could such ideas as those expressed by the words
vassal, alien, ban, mall, fief, be rendered into Latin? When the con-
(juerors substituted the feudal regime of the Germanic tribes for the
monarchical and centralised organization of the Roman Empire, they
were obliged at the same time to introduce into the language words
relating to their institutions ; and thus the titles of the feudal hierarchy
and all terms referring to its political or judicial institutions are
of German origin. Thus, such words as mahal, bann, alod, skepeno,
marahscalh, siniscalh, &c., introduced by the Franks into the common
Latin, became mallum, bannum, alodium, skabinus, mariscallus,
siniscallus, &c., and when, together with the rest of the common
Latin, they passed into French, they became mall, ban, alien, echevin,
mare'chal, se'ne'chal, &c. ^ These words, thus introduced, represent
' Congres Celtique international, Saint-Brieuc, October, 1867, p. 309.
2 These German words having been latinised by the Gallo-Romans, we
will cite them as much as we can in their Latin form, which lies between
the German and the French. Thus, echevin is nearer to scabinus than
to skepeno.
There are also two other questions connected with this subject, which
have not yet been noticed: (i) the exact determination, in the case of
each word, of the particular German dialect to which it belongs; (2) the
date of its introduction into the Low-Latin. There is one class whose origin
we know, the sea-faring terms, which come, almost without exception,
from the Dutch or the Norse. This uncertainty, and our ignorance as to
the ancient German dialects, have hindered us from giving (as we have done
THE GERMANIC ELEMENT. xxiii
classes of ideas of very different kinds ^ ; war, seafaring, hunting,
are the most considerable, as may be seen by the following
examples.
The following is a full hst of these borrowed words, classified
under a few of the most general heads : —
1. Military terms : — arroi, auberge, balk, bande, baudrier, beffroi,
berme, blinder, boulevard, bourg, brandir, breche, brette, bride, briser,
butin, cible, dard, de'sarroi, drille, e'charpe, e'craser, e'curie, e'peron, epier,
esquiver, ^tape, e'trier, fourrage, fleche, fourreau, f rapper, gage, galoper,
gonfalon, guerdon, gue'rite, guerre, guet, guichet, guide, hallebarde, halte,
haubert, heaume, Mberger, he'raut, houseaux, housse, marcher, marichal,
marque, navrer, rang, rapiere, targe, treve, vacarme.
2. Seafaring terms : — agres, amarrer, avarie, bac, bitte, bord, brasse,
canot, caquer, chaloupe, cingler, crique, digue, drague, e'cume, elingue,
equiper, esquif, esturgeon, e'tangue, falaise , foe , fresange, fret , gaffe , gar er ,
guinder, halage, hamac, hauban, hdvre, hisser, hune, lisse, mat, mousse,
quille, rade, radouber, tillac, vague, varangue, varech, voguer.
3. Hunting terms, names of animals, &c. : — aigrette, baudir, be'lier,
blesser, bramer, braque, breuil, broncher, brouter, caille, canard, carpe,
chopper, chouette, clabauder, clapir, crabe, creche^ croupe, ^caille, e'chasse,
e'chine, e'crevisse, e'peiche, epervier, ipois, estrive, f anon, faucon, gar enne,
gerfaut, glapir, grimper, grincer, gripper, grommeler, hanche, hanneton,
happer, hareng, hargneux, heron, homard, le'cher, leurrer, madre',
marsouin, mite, mouette, mulot, rat, re'nard, rosse, rotir, taudis, trappe,
traquer.
4. Titles, and names of political or judicial institutions: — aban-
donner, alleu, ban, bedeau, carcan, chambellan, e'chafaud, e'chanson, e'chevin,
e'cot,fourrier, fief , franc, gabelle, gai, galant, hanse, hardi, haro, honnir,
joli, lisle, lot, malle, marc, mignard, mignon, nantir, orgueil, race, radoter,
riche, saisir, se'nechal. /. G^k
5. Cardinal points, and geographical terms : — dune, est, nord, ouest^ ''
sud.
6. The human body : — blafard, ble'mir, bosse, bot, brun, dandiner,
danser, empan,forcene, gauche, giron, grimace, gue'rir, hocher,jaser, laid,
lippe, moue, nuque, rdler, rider, rincer, t^ter, touffu, toupet.
7. The vegetable world: — alise, aune, bille, bois, bourgeon, brouir,
drageon, dreche, eclisse, e'laguer, epeautre, emousse, framboise, gale, gaude,
gerbe, grappe, groseille, gruau, haie, haver on, hetre, houblon, houx, laiche^
regain, roseau, saule, tuyau.
8. The earth, eleinents, &c.: — fiaque,frimas, gazon, gres, vase.
for the Latin element) a complete phonetic system for the words of
German origin ; we have only given, under each word, the chief examples
which support the observed rules.
^ This intermixture of German words affected only the Latin vocabulary ;
it left the syntax almost untouched, and was scarcely more than an acci-
dental and superficial disturbance.
xxiv INTRODUCTION.
9. Dress, &c. '.—agrafe, brodequin, coiffe, cotte, etoffe , fard, feuire.froc,
gantygodery guimpe, guipure, haillon, laye, layette, mitaine, rochet, touail/e.
10. Instruments, &c. : — anche, banc, bloc, brandon, canif, clinquant,
crampe, crampon, cremaillhe, ^matl, /tau, fauteuil, gaule, hanap, houe,
huche, latte, loquet, manne, mannequin, noue, pincer, rdper, iamis, tas,
ionneau, triteau, vilbrequin.
11. Dwellings: — /choppe, e'tal, itayer, ituve, gdcher, halle, hameau,
hanter, hutte, loger, salle.
12. Food, &c. : — beignet, bief, bihe, drogue, flan, gdteau, gaufre,
saur, soupe.
13. Abstract terms, &c. : — affreux, agace, bafouer, blanc, blette, bleu,
imboiser, imoi, gai, gris, guere, hair, hdle, hdve, teste, sombre, sur.
14. Other words: — bisse, bouter, braise, brelan, broyer, bru, bru/e,
choisir, choquer, cracher, clocher, dauber, de'chirer, defalquer, de'guerpir,
d&ober, drole, iclater, ipeler, faude, fournir, frais, gaber, gagner,
gamboison, garant, garder, garnir, garou, gaspiller, gatine, gauchoir,
gehir, gletteron, glisser, gratter, graver, grenon, groupe, guerpir, guille,
guiller, guise, harangue, hdte,jardin, lot, marri, meurtre, musser, regretter,
river, rouir, sale, siller, sillon, souhait, suif, suie, suinier, taisson, tarir,
ternir, tirer, toucher, trdle, trop.
CHAPTER IV.
The Greek Element.
§ 21. The Greek language has given scarcely anything to the French
since the time of its popular formation ; it could not be otherwise, as
the Gallo-Romans and Greeks never came into contact, and all the
patriotic tales invented by Henri Estienne, Manage, and others, to
prove the affinity between French and Greek, are mere fancies. The
one city which could have brought France into connection with the
Greek language, Marseilles, a Phocean colony, was early absorbed into
the Roman Empire, and lost its Greek character and language. There
are a few Greek words ^, such as, chere, somme, parole, bourse, bocal ;
but these do not come straight from the Greek Kapa, adyfia, napa^oXri,
' We are speaking here of words of popular, not scientific, origin. We
must also distinguish, in the case of Greek compounds, between those
which existed in Greek, as dpio-roKpaTfia, aristocracie, and those which have
been framed by French writers, as photographic, typographic, &c. ; in the
latter case we must study each of the elements of these new words, un-
known to the Greek language ; in the former case, we should be wandering
into the history of the Greek language were we to decompose these words
and their component elements. As for the numerous class of words in-
troduced from Greek into Latin (such as allegoria, philosophia, carya-
tides, &c.), they have come to the French language through the Latin,
and are therefore, for our purposes, Latin words.
ELEMENTS OF LEARNED ORIGIN. xxv
^vpaa, ^avKciXiov, but from the Latin cara, sagma, parabola, byrsa,
baucalis, derived from the Greek ; all these words are to be found in
Latin authors of the seventh century \ The discovery of the laws of
transformation of Latin into French has given us the true origin of
many words formerly considered as derived from the Greek; thus,
the chance likeness oi par esse and trap^cns had led etymologists in old
times to connect the two words ; but if we divide the word par esse
into its elements, we shall see that the suffix -esse must answer to a
termination -itia^ (trtstesse, tristitia, mollesse, moUitia, &c.) ; such
words as entiere from Integra, noire from nigra, shew us that the
r oi par esse answers to a Latin gr; the French a is the Latin i (as in
balance, bilancia ; aronde, hirundo, &c.) ; and thus we reach, by these
three observations, the word pigritia, the true original oi pares se.
To sum up, we may say for Greek what we said for Celtic ; its
influence on popular French has been altogether insignificant.
PART II.
ELEMENTS OF LEARNED ORIGINS
C|
§ 22. By words of learned origin we mean all words introduced into
a language after the epoch of its formation ^ ; that is, in the case of
^ To this list may be added adragant, almanach, bouteille, chomer, gouff're,
golfe, osier, serin, poele, plat, chimie, emeri, dragee, migraine, clopin. Mangon-
neau, chaland, accabler, are military terms, imported into the French lan-
guage at the time of the crusades by the Byzantines. Two Oriental words,
chicane and a'vanie, have passed into the language through the medieval
Greek.
^ It is not always easy to distinguish between words of popular and
words of learned origin. I have placed among the latter a very large
number of words composed of two parts, the one popular, the other
learned ; sometimes a learned prefix has been joined to a popular word, as
in ad-joindre, ad-mettre, sub-ordonner, pro-ft, pro-duire, dis-joindre, dis-courir,
in-clinaison, im-payable (words which should have been a-joindre, a-mettre,
sou-v-ordonner, pour-fit, pour-duire, de-joindre, de-courir, en-clinaison, en-
payable); sometimes a learned termination suffixed to a popular word,
as in^ en-luminer, fer-mete, nourri-ture (which should have been en-lumer,
fer-te, nourr-ure'). Among these words we meet with some ghastly philo-
logical monsters, like pre-alabk, in-surmontable.
^ The persistence of the Latin tonic accent (see § 49) is the rule and
guide for the discovery of such words. All popular words introduced dur-
ing the formation of a language res pec t the Latin accent, proving that they
have been formed by the ear, not by the eye, and spring direct from the
living and spoken language. All words which neglect the accent are of
xxvi INTRODUCTION.
the French language, between the eleventh century* and our own
days. They have been created, long after the death of the Latin
language, by learned men and clerks, who got them out of books, as
they needed them to express their thoughts, and who transplanted
them just as they were into the French speech. Thus, in the eleventh
century we find in some MSS. the word innocent, the exact and servile
reproduction of innocentem ; the French tongue had then no term
for such a quality, and the writer, embarrassed in his attempt to ex-
press himself, was obliged to copy the Latin word. The learned
origin of the word is shewn from the fact that it has not undergone
those transformations which popular usage imposes on all the words
it adopts; thus, in popular words, in becomes en (as infantem,
enfant ; inimicus, ennemi), and nocentem becomes nuisant ; so that
if innocentem had suffered popular transformation it would have
become ennuisant, not innocent. Popular words are the fruit of a
spontaneous and natural growth, learned words are artificial, matters
of conscious reflection ; the former are instinctive, the latter deliberate.
At first, each learned word, for some time after its introduction into
the French language, remained as unknown to the people as scientific
terms are in our day. The barons and villains of the days of Robert
the Pious were as little able to understand the word innocent, as the
labourers of our day are to Q,OTi\^x€^t.xidi paleography or stratification ;
but as there was no popular word for the thing, innocent presently
passed out from the learned into general use : it appears for the first
time in ecclesiastical works ; less than a century later it is to be found in
the Chanson de Roland, and other popular poems ; it has passed from
the scientific and ^special vocabulary to the usual and daily language
of men ^
In writing the history of the French language, it is necessary to
state that it is in the popular part alone that we can grasp the laws
according to which the instincts of the people have transformed Latin
learned origin. This distinction enables us to determine exactly the time
when the French language took its birth ; the French tongue, that is, the
popular and vulgar tongue, was born, and the Latin language was utterly
dead from that day on which the people no longer spontaneously recog-
nised the Latin accent. This was about the eleventh century; thence-
forward the formation of the popular French is complete ; all the rest is of
learned origin.
^ These are words borrowed from ancient languages — at any rate, from
Greek or Latin ; as to words borrowed from modern languages, they will
be found below, under the head of ' Elements of Foreign Origin ' (§ 23).
^ Philologers who divide all languages into two deposits, the instinctive
and the conscious, need not draw any distinction between learned words
and what we call scientific words ; for both of these are of conscious
origin (whether they are in common use, like innocent, or technical, like
paleograpble) ■ and besides, each word in common use whose origin is
learned has begun by being a scientific term, employed by the few.
ELEMENTS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN. xxvli
into French; from this point of view, learned words are'useless to the
philologer ; but this settled, we must not think that learned words are
therefore to be banished ; they have proved their right to exist by
existing ; as M. Sainte-Beuve has rightly said, ' ils sont une des saisons
de la langue;' when the French language was formed the popular
speech was meagre \ answering to the wants of a simple and un-
refined state of society, and to the scanty ideas of a warlike,
agricultural, and feudal population ; all scientific ideas, the property
of the clerks, were expressed only in Latin. After a time feudal so-
ciety was modified, then declined, lastly perished, and gave place to
a new order; to expre-ss new ideas the French language had to
enrich itself by either developing popular terms ^, or borrowing from
the 5eacr languages learned terms, which after a time passed into the
comiTLQQ tongue. These borrowed words, rare in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, and more numerous in the fourteenth, have
become countless from the sixteenth downwards ; they have increased
in proportion to the growth of ideas, and the daily quickening succes-
sion of inventions and discoveries ^.
PART III.
ELEMENTS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN.
§ 23. Besides the classes already enumerated there are many words
of foreign origin, borrowed directly by the French from now existing
languages. These follow no fixed law, being the simple results of
chance. Thus a succession of marriages in the sixteenth century
^ In the French language, there are not much more than 4000 popular
primitives. See below, § 36, for the statistics of the language.
^ By means of compounds, or fresh derivatives; as from regie have
sprung in course of ages, deregler^ dereglement; regler, reglementer, regie-
mentation, &c.
^ I only give the immediate etymology, having neither time nor room for
more. Thus I simply cite enormis as the primitive of enorme ; if I went
on and gave the derivation of enormis (ex norm.a), I should have to write
the history of the Latin language. Those who desire to know more of
that history are referred to the valuable Manuel des racines grecques et latines
by M. Bailly. It often happens, that after a Latin word has produced a
popular French word, it produces, later on, a learned term ; thus from
rationem, raison in popular French, comes later the learned ration ; this
process of double reproduction has received, from a seventeenth-century
Grammarian, the name of ' Doublets.' I have abstained from dealing here
with this subject, as I have already studied this philological phenomenon in
detail in a Dictionnaire des Doublets ou doubles formes de la langue /ran^aise ;
Paris, 1868.
%
xxviii INTRODUCTION.
between Valois princes and Italian princesses brought in suddenly
a number of Italian terms : when France borrowed from England last
century some of her judicial and political institutions, she also took
jthe terms which expressed them. Thus a minute study of the political,
(artistic, or colonial history of a country enables us to shew the precise
/part taken by each language in the vocabulary of its neighbour. On
the other side, the attentive observation of early texts will teach us the
age of these words, and will give us one more element of our know-
ledge by fixing for us the epoch of their introduction. Thus we know
th3.t piano ( = soft) is imported from Italy, partly because the word exists,
and means the same in Italian, partly because it does not appear in
French musical writings till the end of the sixteenth century. Besides
these a posteriori proofs, furnished by history, there are other a priori
proofs, provided by philology, which enable us to declare at once
that the word sought for is not of French origin, and point out to us
its true source. These words have all entered in since the formation
of the language : accordingly, they have not penetrated or combined
with it, nor have they received any of the characteristics which the
French language impresses on those words which it assimilates.
Thus, to refer again to the word piano ; we have already studied it
by the historical or a posteriori method; let us see what philology
tells us about it. Piano, which answers to the Latin planus, cannot,
a priori, be a word of French origin, for pi never becomes /'/in French,
but remains pi ; plorare, pleurer ; plenus, plein ; plus, plus, &c. ;
but more, piano must be of Italian stock, for in Italian only does pi
turn into pi, witness plorare, piorare ; plus, piii ; plenus, pieno, &c.
Thus it is seen how the laws discovered by philology often enable us
to anticipate correctly the inductions of the historical method.
To enumerate according to the scale of importance the languages
which have thus affected the French, we must begin with the family
of the Romance languages (Proven9al, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese) :
these have furnished the most. It was natural that the kindred
languages should provide most : then comes the Teutonic family
(German, English, Flemish). Modern Greek, Hungarian, and the
Sclavonic tongues (Polish, Russian) have given some words. If we
leave Europe, something is due to the Semitic languages (Hebrew,
Turkish, Arabic), and also to the East Indian, Chinese, and Malayan.
The American Colonies have introduced a few special terms into the
French language.
We have now nothing to do but to lay before our readers a formal
catalogue of all these borrowed words, and the history of these
importations ^.
^ As we have done in the case of Greek and Latin, we only give in this
Dictionary the immediate etymology of the words borrowed from modern
languages ; thus we shall see that the French dilettante is a nineteenth-cen-
WORDS OF PROVENCAL ORIGIN. xxix
CHAPTER I.
Words of Provencal Origin.
§ 24. Some persons may doubtless be astonished at seeing the
Proven9al here as a distinct language, parallel with Italian, Spanish,
Portuguese. But if we would really understand its importance, and
the influence it has exercised over the French, we must leave off
regarding it in its modern form, an obscure despised patois, and
look at it in its historical development ; we shall . see that before its
decadence it had, between the eleventh and the fourteenth century,
a brilliant and flourishing existence.
Proven9al, or the ' Langue d' Oc' is the language of all the population
of the Garonne basin, and of the southern part of the Rhone basin :
it gives the name to a race of men, quite distinct from the French of
the North ; it is parent of a brilliant lyrical literature, translated into
German in the thirteenth century, admired by Dante, imitated by
Petrarch ; and lastly, it satisfies the two criteria which in a historian's
eyes distinguish a language from a patois — it is the instrument of a
people and of a literature. The philologer sees stilTniore clearly the
lingufstic originality of the language when compared with the French ^ ;
of equal age, it has certain more archaic characteristics, which bring
it nearer the Latin and give it the same intermediate position between
Frencnand Italian that Provence holds geographically between France
tury importation of the Italian dilettante ( = amateur, slight person of taste) ;
but it would be outside our sphere, and a part of the history of the Italian
language, to go on and shew that the Italian dilettante comes from the
Latin delectantem., like atto, friitto, &c., from actum^, fructum, &c., by
regular change of ct into tt. Want of space forbids us to carry out the
relationship between words of French origin and those of foreign origin
which have a common root. Delectantem, for example, has produced
the Italian dilettante, the French delectant ; in the nineteenth century
dilettante crossed the Alps and became French : it would be interesting to
explain that delectant and dilettante are two forms of a common root, that
dilettante is a ' double ' of delectant, and that these two words form what
we call a 'doublet' (see § 22, note 3).
^ In the middle ages the southerners regarded the French language as
so thoroughly foreign that the Leys d' Amor (a kind of poetical and gram-
matical code of laws, written in the fourteenth century) says (ii. 318)
of the French language : ' Apelam lengatge estranh coma f ranees, engles,
espanhol, lombard.' ' We mean by foreign tongues such as the French,
English, Spanish, Lombard.' In 1229, in a municipal document of Albi,
a notary excuses himself for not having read the inscription on a seal ([If*'
because it was in French, or some other foreign tongue : ' In lingua
Gallica vel alia nobis extranea, quam licet literae essent integrae, perfecto
non potuimus perspicere.'
^
1
XXX INTRODUCTION.
and Italy. But the course of events quickly put an end to this inde-
pendent life. The rivalry between South and North which ended
with the Albigensian war and the defeat of the South, gave a deadly
blow to the Proven9al tongue.
In A.D. 1272, Languedoc fell into the hands of France, and the
introduction of the French language followed close after. The
Proven9al was no longer written; it fell from the rank of a
literary language to that of a patois. The Proven9al, Langue-
docian, and Gascon patois of our day are the mere wrecks of that
' Langue d'Oc ' which in its day had been so brilliant. But it has
left in the French language a great number of terms of different
meanings, introduced chiefly during the middle ages, since the twelfth
century ; and a small number in modern times. These words repre-
sent the most different ideas ; thus there are seafaring terms, carguer,
cap, espade, gabarrit, aulan, mistral, corsaire, carre, vergue ; names of
plants and animals, dorade, ji'gale, cabri, carnassier, ortolan, isard^,
grenade, radis, bigarrade ; abstract terms, jaser, ruser, fdcher, roder,
malotru, hadin, badaud,fat, croisade,/orgat, donzelle, m^nestrel ; names
of precious stones, cornaline, grenat ; terms of dress, dwelling, hor-
ticulture, camail, barette, bastide, pelouse, caisse, cadenas, cambouis ^.
CHAPTER 11.
Words of Italian Origin.
§ 25. The expeditions of Charles Vlll, Louis Xll, and Francois I
beyond the Alps, and the prolonged sojourn of the French armies
in Italy, during the early years of the sixteenth century, made the
Italian language very familiar to the French. * The brilliancy of arts
and letters in the Peninsula attracted men's minds at the very time
when the regency of Catherine dei Medici set the fashion of ad-
miring everything Italian ^.'
This Italian influence was omnipotent over the courts of Francis I,
and Henri II, and the courtiers did their best to make it felt through-
out the nation. Then for the first time there appeared in the
writings of the day a crowd of hitherto unknown words ; terms of
military art used by the French throughout the middle ages, such as
heaume, haubert, &c., disappeared, and gave place to corresponding
* Peculiar to the Beam patois, which has also given the word beret.
Before leaving the countries which border on France, let us say that the
Walloon has contributed ducasse, and the Orisons' patois ran%, chalet^
avalanche, cretin.
^ Add to these ballade, baladin, beton, cdlin. ' M. Littr^.
WORDS OF ITALIAN ORIGIN. xxxi
Italian words, brought in by the Italian wars. From this time date
terms of fence, dof/e, escriine ; words relating to military usages and
qualities, affront, brave, altier, bravade, bravoure, bravache, accolade ;
camp-words, fortification, alarme, alerte, anspessade, bandiere, ban-
douUere, barricade, bastion, bastonnade, brigade; weapons, arquebuse,
.baguette, bovibe, &c.
This mania for ' Italianisms' roused the just wrath of a cotemporary,
Henri Estienne : ' Messieurs les courtisans se sont oubliez jusque-la
d'emprunter d'ltalie leurs termes de guerre sans avoir esgard a la
consequence que portoit un tel emprunt; car d'ici a peu d'ans qui
sera celuy qui ne pensera .que la France ait appris Tart de la guerre,
en I'eschole de Tltalie, quand il verra qu'elle usera des termes italiens ?
Ne plus ne moins qu'en voyant les termes grecs et tous les arts
liberaulx estre gardez es autres langues, nous jugeons, et a bon droict,
que la Grece a dt^ Teschole de toutes les sciences ^!
But Catherine dei Medici brought in not only court terms, and
words expressing amusements, but also terms of art, needed to
express new ideas, which had come from Italy with Primaticcio and
Leonardo da Vinci; such as architectural* words, painters' and
sculptors' words, terms of music, brought in at the end of the
sixteenth and throughout the seventeenth century, commercial words,
sea terms, thief-language, names of plants, diminutives, and many
others.
We subjoin a full list of these borrowed words : —
1 . Court-terms : — accolade, accort, affide, affront, altesse, altier, banquet,
bravade, brigue, cameriste, canaille, caracoler, carrosse, cavalcade, cavegon,
cocarde, cortege, courtisan, escorte, estafier, estrade,fanfreluche, grandesse,
grandiose, imbroglio, incognito, page, paladin, partisan, s&e'nissime.
2. Names of games, &c. : — arlequin, baladin, bamboche, batifoler,
bouffon, burlesque, cabriole, capot, caricature, carnaval, carrousel,
comparse, entrechat, escapade, gala, gambade, Jovial, lazzi, loio, mascarade,
pasquinade, polichinelle, prestidigitateur, quadrille, raquette, saliimbanque,
tarot, tremplin, voltege.
3. Terms of art. Architecture: — arcade, archivolte, balcon, balda-
quin, balustrade, balustre, belve'dere, cabinet, campanile, casino, cata-
falque, cimaise, corniche, coupole, dome, fagade, galbe, niche, paravent,
pilastre, stuc, villa. Painters terms : — aquarelle, calquer, canevas,
carmin, diaprer, esquisse, estamper,fresque, gouache, grotesque, tncarnat,
madone, maquette, modele, mosdique, pcilette, pastel, pastiche, pittoresque,
profit, se'pia, virtuoso. Sculptors' and other artists' terms: — artisan,
bronze, burin, buste, came'e, cicerone, concetti, dilettante, feston, filigrane,
filoselle, girandole, improviser, madj'igal, midaille, orvi/tan, panache,
^ Henri Estienne, Conformiie du langage franqois a'vec le grec, ed.
Feugere, p. 24.
xxxii INTRODUCTION.
ptVdes/al, porcelaine^ stance^ stage, torse. Musical terms: — adagio,
andante, ariette, arplge, barcarolle, bicarre, be'mol, cadence, cantate,
cavatine, concert, crescendo, ipinette, fausset, fioriiure, fugue, mandoline,
op&a, oratorio, piano, preste, rebec, ritournelle, solfege, solo, sonate,
soprano, t/nor, timbale, trille, trombone, violon, violoncelle, vite.
4. Terms of commerce : — agio, banque, banqueroute, bilan, billon,
bulletin, cambiste, carafe, carton, citadin, colis, contracter, dito, doge,
douane, ducat, franco, gazette, grege, jeton, mercantile, noliser, nume'ro,
patache, piastre, pistole, sequin, tare, tarif tirelire, tontine, turquoise.
5. Seafaring terms : — bastingage, boussole, brigantin, calfater, cara-
velle, coche, e scale, escadre,fanal,felouque,fregate,gabier,gondole, nocher,
palan, regale, tartane.
6. Terms of war: — alarme, alerte, arquebuse, arsenal, bandiere,
bandouliere, baraque, barricade, bastion, bombe, botte, bravache, brave, bra-
voure, brigade, calibre, canon, cantine, caporal, carabine, cartel, cartouche,
casemate, casque, castel, cavalerie, cavalier, chevaleresque, citadelle, colonel,
condottiere, croisade, cuirasse, embusquer, escadron, escalade, escarmouche,
escarper, escopette, escrinu, espadon, esplanade, esponion, estacade, estafette,
estafilade, estoc, estramagon, fantassin, fleuret, fougue, fracasser, gabion,
generalissime, giberne, infanterie, javeline, manage, mousqueton, parade,
parapet, pertuisane, patrouille, pavois, pennon, piller, plastron, poltron,
rebuffade, redoute, reprisaille, sacoche, saccade, sentinelle, soldat, sol-
datesque, spadassin, taillade, vedette,, volte,
7. Names of plants, &c. : — artichaut, belladonne, brugnon, cabus,
caroubier, ce'drat, ce'leri, espalier, gousse, lavande, muscade, muscat,
oleandre, pisiache, primevere, scorsonere.
8. Dress, &c. : — cadenas, calegon, camisole, capote, casaque, costume,
grlgues, pantalon, parasol, perruque, pommade, postiche, satin, serviette,
simarre, valise,- zibeline.
9. Names, &c., of animals : — balzan, cagneux, caresser, ganache,
impregner, madrepore, marmotte, perroquet, piste, tarentule, zibeline.
10. Food: — biscotte, brouet, candi, capiteux, capon, carbonnade, casse-
rolle, cervelas, frangipane, macaron, macaroni, marasquin, marmite,
massepain, muscadin, panade, reveche, rissoler, riz, salade, semoule, sir op,
sorbet, zeste.
11. Man's person: — attitude, caboche, camus, carcasse, esquinancie,
estropier, in-petto, moustache, pavaner, scarlatine, seton, svelte.
12. Thief- terms and slang : — bagne, bandit, bastonnade, bravo,
brigand, charlatan, chiourme, contrebande, escroc, espion, estrapade,faquin,
lazaret, lazzarone, rodomont, sacripant, sbirre, supercherie.
13. Diminutives: — babiole, bagatelle, baguette, bambin, caprice, pec-
cadille.
14. The elements, &c. : — bise, bourrasque, brusque, calme, cascade,
filon, granit, lagune, lave, sirocco, tramontane, volcan.
WORDS OF SPANISH ORIGIN. xxxiii
15. Other terms, not classified: — anspessade, ballon, balourd, haster^
boucon, boutade, camerine, cantone, capilotade, capiionner , cariole, cala-
combe, chagrin, deesse, desinvolte, douche, fiasco, forfanterie, frasque,
gabie, gambet, gigantesque, girouette, gourdin, isoler, improviste, ingambe,
Ihine, malandr in, palade, pas sade, pedant, piston, populace, revolte, riposte,
sarbacane, sorte, talisman, iromblon, ville'giature.
CHAPTER III.
Word's of Spanish Origin.
§ 26. The Wars of the League and the long occupation of French
soil by Spanish armies towards the end of the sixteenth century spread
wide among the French nation the knowledge of the Castilian speech.
This invasion which lasted from the time of Henry IV to the
death of Louis XIII left very distinct marks on the French
language. Hence come the names of many exotic plants and
their manufactured products, as cannelle, vanille, indigo, tabac, tomate,
cigare, benjoin, abricot. Union, jasmin, jonquille, jujube, savane, tulipe,
Union ; animals ^, musaraigne, epagneul, me'rinos, cochenille, anchois,
pintade ; colours, basa7ie, alezan, nacarat, albinos ; parts of dwelling-
places, alcove, case, corridor ; furniture, calebasse, cassolette, mantille ;
dress, galon, savate, pagne, mantille, basquine, caban, chamarrer ; con-
fectionary, marmelade, caramel, chocolat, nougat ; some musical terms,
castagnette, guitare, se're'nade, aubade ; games, or enjoyments, sieste^
sarabande, regaler, hombre, ponte, dominos ; titles or qualifications,
laquais, menin, duegne, grandesse ; sea terms, arrimer, embargo, embar-
cadere, de'barcadere, mousse, cabestan, pinte, recif, subre'cargue ; military
terms, adjudant, caserne, diane, colonel, escouade, camarade, haquen/e,
cabrer, caparagofi, salade, espadon, incartade, algarade, capitan, matamore.
Abstract terms are rare, baroque, bizarre, disparate, casuiste, barbon,
paragon, eldorado, transe, soubresaut, risquer, hdbler '^. Creole, muldtre,
negre, come from the Spanish-American colonies, as also does liane,
which is not to be found in Hterary Spanish. We may add that most
of these importations are later than the time of Charles IX, with
■^ Certain organs also, as carapace, or their products, as hasane.
^ Habler comes from hahlar, ' to speak,' and answers to the Low Latin
fablare from fabulari. As it passed into French the word took the sig-
nification of exaggeration in speech. It is curious that the same change
has overtaken parler ; the Spaniards borrowed the word in the seventeenth
century from France, and have given to it the sense of boastfulness in
speech. Ambassade came from Spain about the end of the fifteenth
century.
I
xxxiv INTR on UCTION.
the exception of a few words like algarade, which is to be found
as far back as the middle of the sixteenth century ^
The Portuguese language has given some words bearing on Indian
and Chinese manners, as he'zoard, bayadere, mandarin, caste, fetiche ;
one term signifying an ecclesiastical punishment, auto-da-fi ; one of
military discipline, chamade ; and some names of fruits, coco, abricot,
bergamote.
CHAPTER IV.
Words of German Origin,
§ 27. All French words of German origin are later than the first half
of the sixteenth century. The religious wars, the Thirty Years' War,
the German wars of the eighteenth century, have introduced a number
of military terms, bivouac, blocus, blockhaus, chabraque, colback, jiam-
berge, fifre, havresac, hourrah, loustic, lansquenet, retire, obus, sabre,
rosse, sabretache, schlague, vaguemestre ; words expressing drink, pot-
house terms, trinquer, brandevin, choucroute, cannette, gargotte, kirsch,
bonde, fleche, nouille ; some names of animals, dan, renne, hamster,
brtme ; some terms of art, graver, estomper ; of dancing, valser ; of sea-
faring, bdbord'^. Mining industry, so general in Germany, has given
a great number of specific mineralogical terms, bismuth, cobalt, cou-
perose, igriser, emb&ize, gangue, gueuse, glette, manganese, potasse, quartz,
spath, zinc. Nickel is a Swedish word.
We have said above that French words of German origin are not
earlier than the sixteenth century; but this remark does not apply
to words of Old Gennan or Teutonic origin, which came into the
Latin language between the tenth and the thirteenth centuries, and
passed from the Latin into the French. These two classes of words
are very distinct ; the Teutonic, in passing through the Latin, have
lost their native form, and have gone through regular transformations
before becoming French ; the others, German words, borrowed
straight from Modern German, and introduced in their natural
state, break into the general regularity of the language. The former
unite closely and absolutely with the French, the latter are but super-
' ficially connected : in the language of chemistry, words of German
origin mix only with the French, those of Teutonic birth enter into
combination with it.
^ Add, as debts to the Spanish, the name of one metal, platine, and of
a typographical abbreviation, cedille. One word, mesquin, came in about
the twelfth century.
"^ House furniture owes to German some special terms, hahut, edredon.
Abstract terms are few, chenapan, gamin, chic, anicroche, and almost always
bear a bad sense. The Flemish has given bouquin ; the name of a plant, colza,
and one name of a festival, kermesse.
WORDS OF ENGLISH ORIGIN. xxxv
CHAPTER V.
Words of English Origin.
§ 28. Communications between England and France have daily grown
more and more frequent from the time of the Restoration, and have
brought with them a large number of English words. These refer to
industrial pursuits, tender, rail, wagon, tunnel, ballast, express, coke,
flint, lias, malt; agriculture, drainer, cottage; poHtics, legislation,
budget, jury, bill, convict, comite', speech, verdict, club, meeting, pamphlet,
toast ; banking, cheque, warrant, drawback ; sundry moral states, spleen,
comfort, humour, dress, chdle, car rick, redingote, plaid, lasting, spencer ;
food, bifteck, rosbif, pudding, mess, bol, grog, gin, punch, rhum ; racing,
sport, amusements, sport, boxe, turf, jockey, clown, bouledogue, groom,
steeple-chasse, stalk, tilbury, break, dogcart, festival, raout, lunch, whist,
touriste, fashionable, dandy ; medicine, croup ; sea-terms, many of
which are of old standing in the French language, dock, bosseman,
accore, beaupre, cabine, boulingrin, cabestan, cachalot, cambuse, coaltar,
cutter, eperlan, flibustier, hiler, interlope, loch, lof, paquebot, poulie,
touage,yacht^,
CHAPTER VI.
Words of Slavonic Origin.
§ 29. The Polish language has provided certain dance-words, ;5<?/^^,
mazurka, redowa, the word caliche, and one heraldic term, sable.
Russian gives steppe, knout, czar, palache, cosaque, cravache (though
this last word travelled into France through Germany).
Besides the Slavonic languages the Uralian tongues have also borne
their very slender part in influencing the French language ; Louis XIV
having introduced the hussards (a Hungarian word), the new corps
kept its Magyar name, huszdr, and some of its old technical terms,
shako, dolman. In the fifteenth century, horde, a word of Mongol
origin, meaning in Tartar the camp and court of the king, was
brought into France.
CHAPTER VII.
Words of Semitic Origin.
§ 30. The Semitic words in the French language are Hebrew, or
Turkish, or Arabic. It was a pet notion of the old etymologists to
^ France also owes to the English the w^ords square, billet, and alligator,
d2
xxxiri INTRODUCTION.
derive all languages from the Hebrew : the labours of modern philo-
logers have shewn that such dreams were a vanity: and the most
important result of modern science has been the discovery of the law
that elements of languages answer exactly to the elements of race. Now
the French belong to a very different race from the Jew, and therefore
the relations between the French and Hebrew tongues must be illusory,
a mere chapter of accidental coincidences. When St. Jerome ren-
dered the Old Testament out of Hebrew into Latin, he brought into
his version a number of Hebrew words which had no Latin equivalent,
such as seraphim, gehennon, pascha, &c., and from ecclesiastical
Latin they passed, five centuries later, into French, se'raphin, gene,
pdque, &c. * But it is through the Latin that the French received
them, and we may fairly say that Hebrew has had no direct influence
on French. The same is true of the Arabic, whose relations to the
French have been entirely matters of chance : without saying anything
of words expressing things purely Oriental, like Alcoran, bey, cadi,
caravane, derinche, firman, janissaire, narghiU, odalisque, pacha, cara-
vanse'rail, babouche, cimeterre, drogman, calife, mameluk, marabout,
minaret, marfil, mosque'e, turban, chacal, gazelle, girafe, genette, once,
talisman, sequin^ serail, sultan, vizir, &c., which have been brought
straight from the east by travellers, the French language received
during the middle ages several Arabic words from another source : the
effect of the crusades, the great scientific progress made by the Arabs,
the study of oriental philosophers, common in France between the
twelfth and fourteenth centuries, have enriched the vocabulary with
words bearing on the three sciences cultivated successfully by the
Arabs, namely, astronomical terms, azimuth, nadir, zenith ; alchemist
terms, alcali, alcool, alambic, alchimie, elixir, borax, ambre, julep, sir op ;
mathematical terms, alglbre, algorithme, zero, chijfre ; but even these
words of exclusively learned origin, did not pass straight from Arabic
into French, but passed first through the scientific medieval Latin.
The commercial relations between France and the East have also
introduced a number of terms bearing on dress, bouracan, colon,
hoqueton, taffetas, jupe, colback ; on building and furnishing, kiosque,
divan, matelas, sofa, bazar, magasin ; jewellery, colours, perfumes,
nacre, laque, carat, orange, azur, lazuli, talc, civette ; lastly, words
which come under no special classification, echec, mat, hazard, cafe',
tamarin, amiral, haras, truchement.
The frequent invasions and long sojourn of the Saracens in
Southern France between the eighth and the eleventh centuries have
left absolutely no traces either on the southern dialects, or on the
French language ^.
^ We may add to this list the Talmudic words cahale and rabbin.
* See Reinaud, Invasions des Sarrasins en France^ pp. 306, 307.
WORDS OF AMERICAN ORIGIN. xxxvii
CHAPTER VIII.
Words of Oriental Origin.
§ 31. By words of Oriental origin are meant all those terms which
have been brought by travellers from India, nadad, drakme, palanquin^
pagode, paria^ jongle, carnac, bambou, mousson, &c. ; from China, the ;
from the Malay Archipelago, casoar, orangoutang.
The word zebre is of African origin.
CHAPTER IX.
Words of American Origin.
§ 32. The words collected in the three last chapters do not express
French notions, and are, properly speaking, not French words at
all ; the same is true of local terms introduced into the language by
the relations kept up between France and the American colonies.
Such words are acajou, ananas, boucanier, cacao, caiman, calumet,
chocolat, colibri, condor, jalap, mais, ouragan, quinquina, quinine, sagou,
tabac, tapioca, tatouer.
PART IV.
ELEMENTS OF VARIOUS ORIGIN.
Under this head come all the words whose introduction into the
language may be said to be purely accidental, whether their origin be
historical, as the word S^ide ^, or onomatopoetic (due to the imita-
tion of sounds), as craquer. After these, which will close the list of
words of known origin, we shall come to a hst of all the words as to
which etymology has arrived at no definite conclusion.
CHAPTER I.
Words of Historical Origin.
§ 33. These words, few in number, are due to some accidental cir-
cumstance ; but this makes it all the more needful to recognise them
properly ; for if we were to shut our eyes to their origin, and try to
discover a scientific etymology for them, we should be sure to go
1 From Voltaire's Mahomet, in which there is a blind agent of the
Prophet's will named Seide^ the French form of the Arabic Sdid,
xxxviii INTRODUCTION.
wrong. If we were to forget that guilloiine, macadam, mansarde,
quinquety are named after their inventors, and set ourselves to de-
compose them into their elements, with a view to finding, by the
rules of permutation, their Greek or Latin origin, we should certainly
fall into the most fantastic mistakes.
Words of historic origin almost always refer to concrete things or
material objects, and especially, as is natural, new inventions or impor-
tations, as, for example, stuffs, madras, nankin, mousseline, cachemire,
calicot, astrakan, rouennerie, gaze, from the names of places, Madras,
Nankin, Mossoul, Cachemire, Calicot, Astrakan, Rouen, Gaza, where
these goods were first made ; carriages, berline, made at Berlin, fiacre,
Victoria, d'Aumont, &c. ; vegetables. Dahlia, named after the botanist
Dahl by Cavanilles in 1790, cantaloup, or melon, cultivated at Can-
ialuppo, a papal villa near Rome, &c.
Abstract words are scarcer : such as jirimiade, from the Prophet,
lambiner, from Lambin (d. 1577), a professor in the College of
France, and famous for the immense length of his explanations, and
the diifuseness of his commentaries. Other words are either invented
by the learned, as gaz, which was created in the sixteenth century by
Van Helmont the alchemist, or they are the expression of some
ancient circumstance, as the word greve ( = combination of working
men) comes from the phrase se mettre en Greve, and this from the
fact that under the old regime the working men of the different cor-
porations used to assemble on the old Place de la Greve at Paris, to
wait to be hired, or to prefer complaints against their employers
before the Pr^v6t des Marchands ^.
CHAPTER II.
Onomatopoetic Words.
§ 34. There are very few words in the French language which are
formed ' onomatopoetically", that is, by imitation of sounds. These
express the cries of animals, croasser, miauler, hdfrer,japer, taper ; the
phases of human speech, babiller, fredonner, caqueter, chuchoter, chut,
^ The following is the list of French words of historic origin : — Artesien,
Amphitryon, Angora, Atlas, Assassin, Ba'ionnette, Balais, Baragouin, Basque,
Beguin, Berline, Besant, Bicoque, Biscaien, Bougie, Bretteur, Brocard, Bareme,
Cacl^emire, Calepin, Calicot, Canari, Cantaloup, Cannibale, Carlin, Carmagnole,
Carme, Casimir, Cauchois, Celadon, Chiner, Cognac, Cordonnier, Cranjate,
Curasao, Dahlia, Damasser, Damasquiner, Dedale, Dinde, Echalotte, Epa-
gneul, Esclave, Escobard, Espiegle, Faience, Fiacre, Flandrin, Florin, Fontange,
Fra7ic, Frise (cheval de), Futaine, Galetas, Gal'vanisme, Ga'vote, Gaze, Gilet,
Gothique, Guillotine, Guinee, Gre've, Guillemet, Hermetiquement, Hermine,
Hongre, Inde, Jarnac, Jaquette, Laconique, Louis, Lambiner, Jeremiade,
Macadam^ Madras^ Meringue, Magnolier, Mansarde, Marionnette, Marotte,
WORDS WHOSE ORIGIN IS UNKNOWN. xxxix
cancan, marmotter, hoquei ; certain conditions of size or movement,
bouffer, botcffir, zigzag ; some natural sounds, dapoier, croquer, humer,
claque, crac, craquer, eric, tic, toper, pouffer, bruissement, cliquetis, fan-
fare ; the speech of children, manian, papa, fanfan ; and some inter-
jections, from bah, ebahir ; from hu, huer.
CHAPTER HI.
Words whose Origin is Unknown.
§ 35. We have now described all the known provinces of that vast
domain which men call the French Language, but there are other
provinces which philologers have not yet recognised or explored. The
limits of these must now be carefully traced out on our linguistic map
of the language; the line which separates the known from the
unknown cannot be fixed till we have made out the map of the
former, and have fixed the frontiers of the provinces with which we
are certainly acquainted.
This unknown region, as might be expected, embraces hardly any
but words of popular origin, and gives us a collection of more than
six hundred words whose derivation is as yet undiscovered. It would
be not strictly true to say that the etymology of all these words is un-
known to us ; there are very few of them as to which the philologer
cannot give us several conjectures, each equally plausible ; and it is
quite certain that the day will come when the science, with more
powerful instruments, will resolve all these problems ^ ; but in the
present state of our philological knowledge, these hypotheses can
be neither verified nor refuted, and we therefore pass them by in
silence, deeming unknown all those words as to which philology has
not attained to any definite conclusion.
To reproduce discussions which lead to no conclusion, would be to
act in opposition to the end we have set before us ; for purposes of
instruction, doubt is worse than ignorance, and in teaching the young
Maroquin, Marotique, Martinet, Mercuriale, Mousseline, Nankin, Nicotine^
Pierrot, Patelinage, Perse, Persienne, Phaeton, Pistolet, Praline, Quinquet,
Renard, Ripaille, Robinet, Rouennerie, Roquet, Salsepareille, Serin, Sansonnet,
Sardonique, Sarrasin, Seide, Serin, Silhouette, Simonie, Strass, Tartufe, Truie,
Tournois, Turlupinade, Faude'ville, Vandalisme.
^ It is hard to foresee into what these 650 words will be resolved ; a
large and marked portion of them is certainly formed from words altered
from the Latin or the Teutonic, and the action of degradation has been so
great that it conceals from us their origin. The rest, doubtless less
than one half, are related, and will be traced back, to the indigenous lan-
guages, the Basque, the Celtic, &c., which were spoken on the Gallic soil
at the time of the Roman Conquest.
xl INTRODUCTION.
we are apt to lose some of the fruits of knowledge unless the distinc-
tion between the known and the unknown is laid down clearly and
without hestitation.
The French words whose origin is unknown amount to about
650 ^ : — Adn, accoufrer, atgrejin, ai'se, ajonc, aloyau, amalgame, amphi-
gouri, andouiller^ antilope, antimoine, ardillon, ardoise, aigot, armet,
atieler, aiiifer, aube, aumusse, auvent.
Babine, babouin, bdche, badigeon, baguenauder, bala/re, balise, baltverne,
halle, bancal, bancroche, barai, baratte, barder, barguigner, baril, baron,
basan/, bascule, bdiir, baudruche, bauge, bedaine, blgue, belitre, bercer,
berge, berne, besogne, besoin, biche, bidon, bielle, bifier, bigarrer, btgle,
bigot, bijou, bilboquet, billevesie, billon, bimbeloi, bique, bis, bise, biseau,
hisquer, bistouri, bistre, blaser, blason, blette, blond, blotiir, blouse, bobeche,
bobine, bombance, bombe, borgne, bosse,. bot, bouder, boudin, boue, bougon,
boulanger, bourbe, bourdon, bourreau, bousculer, bouse, braire, branche,
brande, branler, braquemart, braquer, bredouiller, brehaigne, breloque,
bretauder, bretelle, bribe, bricole, brimborion, brin, brioche, broc, brocanter,
brou, brouir, bruine, bruire, buffet, burette, butor.
Cabaret, cabas, cafard, cagot, cahoter, caieu, caillou, calembour, cali-
fourchon, calotte, camard, camion, camouflet, cant, canton, caramboler,
cassis, catimini, chalet, chalit, chamailler, chambranle, chanfrein, charade,
charangon, charivari, chassie, chiffe, choyer, ciron, ciseau, civiere, claque-
murer, cocasse, coche (a notch), cochevis, colifichet, complot, concierge,
copeau, coqueluche, coquin, corme, cosse {/cosser), coterie, cotret, courge,
cre'celle, crepe (a cake), cretonne, creuset, crotte.
Dague, dalle, dibaucher, dicruer, de'gingande', de'gringoU, divelopper,
diner, disette, dodu, dorloter, doucine, douve, drap, dupe.
Eblouir, ibouriffer, ^carquiller, e'chouer, eclabousser, eclanche, ecran,
icrouer, e'crouir, egrillard, embaucher, imoustiller, empeigne, endever,
engouer, enlizer, enticher, ^pargner, iparvin, ergot, estaminet, itancher,
dtoiler, Etiquette.
Fagot, falbala, falun, fardeau, farfadet, felon, feuillette, filou,
flagorner, flanelle, fldner, flatter, foulard, fredaine, freluquet, fretin,
fricasser, friche, fricot, frime, fringant, fripe, f riser.
Gadoue, gaillard, galet, galetas, galimatias, galvauder, ganse, gargon,
gargote, gargouille, gargouse, gibet, gibier, giboule'e, gifle, gigot, givre,
se goberger, godailler, godelureau, gogo, goinfre, gonelle, goret, gosier,
goujat, gourmand, gourme, gourmet, grabuge, graillon, gravier, gredin,
grile, gribouiller, groimoire, gringalet, grive, gruger, guenille, guenon,
gueridon, guetre, guilleret, guimbarde, guinguette, guisarfue.
Harasser, hardes, haricot, haridelle, heurter, horion, houille, houppe-
lande, houspiller, hure.
^ This is calculated on the base of the Dictionnaire de V Academic ; if we
were to include every unknown word in the language the number would be
considerably larger.
STATISTICS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. xli
Jachere, Jalon, jargon, J auger, javarte, javelot, jucher.
Laie, laiton, lambeau, landier, laudanum, liais. Hard, lice, lie, lijigot,
lopin, losange, loupe, luron, lutin, luzerne.
Mdche, machicoulis, macquer, magnanerie, magot, viammouth, niani-
gance, manivelle, maquereau, maraud, marc, marcassin, marmot, mar-
mouset, viatelot, matois, matou, mauvais, megissier, meleze, meringue^
merisier, merlan, mievre, mijauree, mijoter, mince, mirliton, moellon,
moignon, moquer, moquette, morgue, morlaise, morue, motte, mouron^
mufle, maser.
Nabot, nigaud.
Omelette, orseille, ouate. ■
Patois, patraque, patte, pepin, percale, percer, petit, pile (reverse, of
coins), pilori, pimpant, pingre, pirouette, piton, pivot, pleige, pompe,
pompon, potele', potiron^ preux.
Quinaud, quintal.
Rabdcher, rable, rabougrir, rahrouer, racher ; rafale, rainure,
ratatiner, raz, ren/rogner, requin, r^ve, ricaner, ricocher, ronfler, rosser,
ruban.
Sabord, sabot, salmis, sarrau, sebile, semelle, serpilliere, sobriquet, soin,
sot, soubrette, souche, soupape, souquenille, sournois, sparadrap.
Tache, taloche, tan, tangage, taper, tapir, tarabusier, tarauder, tarte,
tintamarre, trancher, trapu, tricoter, trimbaler, trimer, tringle, tripot,
tripoter, trique, trogne, trognon, frompe, truffe, trumeau.
Varlope, vasistas, vigie.
CHAPTER IV.
Of the Statistics of the French Language.
§ 36. Let us finally express in figures the chief results we have now
arrived at: although statistics are hardly in their right place here,
and although we may not wish to follow Malherbe's precept, that it is
very pretty to ' nombrer ndcessairement,' we may apply to our subject
M. Sainte-Beuve's excellent maxim, that il faut, tot ou tard, dans ce
vaste arriere humain qui sainoncelle, en venir . . . a des reglements du
passe', a des conceptions sommaires,fussent elks un peu artificielles, a des
me'thodes qui ressemblent a ces machines qui abregent et re'sument un tra-
vail de plus en plus interminable et infini'^. We must not, then, press
our figures too hard ; they only express approximately the relations
and proportion of the different elements which combine to form
the French language.
^ Sainte-Beuve, Nowveaux Lundis, VIII. p. 44.
xlii STATISTICS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.
Statistics of the Modern French Language.
1. Words, whose origin is unknown 650
2. Words of popular origin: —
i. Latin element (primitive words) . 3800
ii. Germanic element 420
iii. Greek element 20
iv. Celtic element 20
4260
3. Words of foreign origin : —
i. Italian 450 V
ii. Proven9a:l 50^
iii. Spanish 100
iv. German 60
V. English . 100
vi. Slavonic 16
vii. Semitic no
viii. Oriental 16
ix. American 20
922
4. Words of historic origin . 115
5. Ononiatopoetic words 40
Total number of words 5987
If we substract from the 27,000 words contained in the DicHonnaire
de tAcademie these 5987 just enumerated, we shall find a remainder
of about 21,000 words, created either by the people from primitive
words, by composition and derivation, or by the learned, who have
borrowed a crowd of words direct from Greek and Latin.
BOOK III.
PHONETICS, OR THE STUDY OF SOUNDS.
§ 37. There are two objects which Phonetics set before them : first,
the description of sounds, which are the elements of language ;
secondly, the study of the origin and history of these sounds when
once we have clearly described them \
PART I.
DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS.
§ 38. Without attempting to describe the organs of the human
voice, or encroaching on the sphere of the anatomist, we must still
state in this place (though without endeavouring to prove our pro-
^ I have already defined Phonetics (§ 4), and have shewn what help
etymology gets from it : guided by these fixed laws of transformation of
sounds in passing from a parent language to its offspring, etymology is no
longer obliged to trust to fallacious analogies of sound or signification;
but can usually tell beforehand the form which any particular Latin word
naturally adopts in French.
The true place of Phonetics is under the head of Grammar, of which
it is an integral part; and I have discussed the Phonetics of the French
language in the Historical Grammar. It might have been enough to refer
the student to that work ; but as I am now endeavouring to lay before
him for the first time the proof of every etymology, I wish him to have
ready to hand the means of verifying and controlling my statements, and
the complete collection of the transformations of Latin into French.
These two treatises on Phonetics are not the same. In the Grammar
I limited myself to the exposition of the chief laws, with a few examples
only; but here, on the contrary, I lay down not only the list of facts
which confirm the chief laws, but also most of the secondary laws and
the exceptions.
xHv INTRODUCTION.
positions) the chief results which have been attained by physiology *,
in its researches into the mechanism of language and the classification
of sounds. It is only by dissecting sounds that we can get a detailed
account of the marvellous instrument on which, as Max Miiller well
says, * we play our words and thoughts.' And besides, these physio-
logical preliminaries are an indispensable prelude to the study of the
history of the sounds of the French language.
§ 39. All that the human ear can perceive may be divided into
sounds, or successions of periodical vibrations, and noises, or irregular
successions of discontinuous vibrations. Sounds may be noted musi-
cally ; noises cannot. The human voice is a current of air emitted
from the lungs, under the pressure of the thorax, vibrating as it passes
across the vocal chords.
§ 40. If the current of breath reaches the open air without having
been interrupted or troubled in its passage through the mouth, there
is produced a sound, which we call a vowei'^.
§ 41. If, on the other hand, this current of air is suddenly stopped
in its progress by any barrier, such as the tongue, teeth, or lips, the
sound is spoilt, and instead thereof comes out a noise, known by the
name of consonant; whose different varieties are due to the differences
in orjgans (tongue, teeth, lips), which thus interrupt the emission of the
voice.
Thus, then, human speech is to be divided into two modes and
forms ; the consonant which is but a noise; and the vowel which
is a sound, and is consequently subject to certain musical conditions
which we must now pass on to discuss.
^ The two works of the highest value on this subject (placed in chrono-
logical order) are Briicke's Grundziige der Physiologie und Systematik der
Sprachlaute (Vienna, 1856), and Helmholtz's Lehre von den Tonempfindungen
(Brunswick, 1863). Of these, the former has settled, quite finally or nearly
so, the laws of consonants ; the latter is all-important for the vowels.
Both have been combined, and thrown into a short and useful form, by
Dr. Rumpelt, in 1869 {Das naturliche System der Sprachlaute'). I need
not name Mr. Max Miiller's admirable lecture (Lect. II. p. 103) on the
same subject : it is a real chef-dcewvre of penetration and clearness.
2 Literally an emission of the voice : 'vocalis from vox.
THE VOWELS. xlv
CHAPTER I.
The Vowels.
§ 42. Setting aside the question of its duration, each note has
three aspects : —
1. As to its elevation or tone; that is, its place in the scale of
sounds. The elevation of a note is a result of the number of vibra-
tions which take place in a given time. When we say that a si is
more shrill, a higher note than a mi, we mean to say that si is pro-
duced by a greater number of vibrations in the same time than are
required to produce the sound called mi.
2. As to it's, power; that is, the degree of intensity with which the
note strikes the ear. This depends on the length of the curves of
oscillation of the air-particles ; or (as it would be phrased in acoustics)
on the amplitude of the vibrations. When we sing a note softly
we displace or set in vibration a less volume of air than if we were
singing the same note at the full pitch of our voice.
3. As to its quality; that is, the timbre, or sonorous characteristics
of a note. Thus, if we hear the same note sounded at the same
moment on a violin and on a piano, why is it that we distinguish
the two? Whence comes it that these two notes, of the same
elevation and power (identical, that is, in number and amplitude
of their vibrations), are yet perfecdy distinguishable? The answer
is that the piano and violin have different qualities; they give, as one
may say, two distinct colours, just as when we see the same object
through two panes of coloured glass, one making it look green, the
other red. Each instrument has its own peculiar quality; a colour
which tinges each sound, and gives its timbre to it. This modification
of sounds arises from the different shapes and materials of the in-
struments which generate them ; for these differences in shape and
material naturally produce a corresponding difference in the form
of the vibrations which create the sound. But whence then comes
it that, in the case of two notes, identical in intensity and eleva-
tion, the form of the vibrations can produce this diversity of quality ?
This brings us to the theory known under the name of that of * Multiple
Resonance,' or of 'Harmonic Sounds.' As long ago as a.d. 1700,
Sauveur remarked that if the string of a clavichord be pinched
tight, one hears at once, in addition to the note which has been
struck, and at the same time with it (supposing the ear is acute and
practised), other notes which are more acute than the one struck,
and which sound feebly through a sort of sympathy. These accom-
panying secondary notes, which emerge directly we strike a note,
are called 'the harmonics' or 'resonant sounds:' the experiment by
xlvi INTRODUCTION.
which the existence of these harmonics can be materially proved is
well known : — if we put leaden soldiers on the notes of a piano, and
then strike a note, all the men standing on the notes which are
harmonics to the note struck will be upset, while the others all remain
unmoved. Helmholtz then discovered the important fact that the har-
monics which wait on each note vary in number and quality, according
to the nature of the instrument ; or, in a word, that the form of the
instrument giving its own form to the vibrations, the harmonics were
modified in different ways, while the note struck remained always the
same, and this difference in the nature and intensity of the harmonics
was in fact the cause of that difference in quality of which we have
been speaking. This discovery, that the shape of the instrument
modifies the form of the vibrations, and that this determines the
different varieties of harmonics, whence come the varieties of quality,
gave Helmholtz the clue to the explanation of the manner in which
vowel-sounds are produced. Thinking that, in order to pronounce
each of the vowels a, z, u (the last to be sounded ou, as in Italian),
we have to modify the form of the tube made by the cheeks, and that
thereby we modify the form of the vibration, and thereby also we
change the character of the harmonics, Helmholtz succeeded in
proving that the different vowels are only the different qualiiies (or
iimbres) of the human voice, due to the different forms taken by the
orifice of the cheeks, the mouth, during the emission of the voice.
§ 43. The gamut of vowels, as Helmholtz has established it, is :
«, 0, a, e, i ; the relationship and transformation of the vowels will be
more visible by means of the vocal triangle, as Briicke determined
it in 1856 1: —
o(aa in e^trorfj
This triangle shews us the progress of vowel sounds as they pass
through the phases of their transformation: -thus on its way to H
* In this diagram are given the sounds which exist in French or Latin.
Briicke's triangle marks several other vowels, foreign to these two lan-
guages, and therefore not inserted or studied here.
THE VOWELS. xlvii
must necessarily first pass through eu ; and this law, directly established
by physiological investigation, is confirmed by history, which shews
that it has always existed, and has always been obeyed: thus Lat.
morum became first O. Fr. meure, and is now mure; motum, O. Fr. meu^
now mu. Is it not clear then, that the previous study of the physio-
logical law of sounds is a very valuable guiding fine for the history
of the transformations of language ? In fact, strange as it may seem,
this preamble to etymological research is an absolute necessity.
The human organs ever obey the same laws, and it is natural
that we should make use of discoveries made by investigation into
the Hving organ, if we would explain the changes of sound caused
by the vocal organism of races which have now disappeared from
the earth.
§ 44. By the side of these vowels which we have just studied,
known by the name of 'pure or sonorous vowel-sounds,' we find
a second class of vowels known as the 'nasal or muffled vowel
sounds ; ' so called, not because they are really pronounced through
the nose, but because in pronouncing them the veil of the palate
is lowered, and the air thus compelled to vibrate through the cavities
which connect the nose with the pharynx : in fact, if while these
sounds are being emitted, we close the nose altogether, we make
the vowel still more strongly nasal, which shews that they cannot
be formed through the nose. These nasal sounds, unknown to the
Latins and to most European languages, are, we may say, a French
speciality, represented by the following groups of letters, an, en, in,
on, un.
§ 45. In addition to these vowels, pure and nasal, are the diph-
thongs, or mixed sounds, made up of two vowels pronounced together
xlviii INTRODUCTION.
by a single voice-utterance : these we must consider ilext. Now,
according as we rest on the first or on the second of these vowels,
so shall we produce one or other of two kinds of diphthongs : those
which are accented on the former vowel, as the Italian ^i {poi, nSi),
we will call strong diphthongs ; those accented on the latter vowel,
like the French oui, are called the weak.
§46. Application of the above-stated Principles. Inventory of
Latin Vowels.
I. There are eleven Latin vowels : a, a ; e, e ; 6, 6 ; i, i ; y ; u, u.
The pronunciation of a, o, i was identical with that of the French a, o, i;
e was pronounced like the open French e (as in aprh) ; u like the
French ou; y was a sound unknown in common Latin, and imported
into dbe_learne3~iaSguage from Greece ; It answeT5~to- French «,
or to"(jerman ii in Muller, with, however, a somewhat more marked
tendency to pass into i. The nasal sounds are unknown in Latin.
II. The diphthongs. These are six in number, all of them with
the accent on the former vowel : they are du, 6u, 6i, ui, de, 6e.
These strong diphthongs are pronounced as follows : —
'Au like German au (in ^avi^))^ and answers to the combination
of French letters dou : thus, durum was pronounced aouroum : in
the latter days of the Empire this aou became o in the speech of the
peasantry; for Festus (p. 189) tells us that from the third century
downwards the peasantry said orum for aurum, oricula for auricula
('orum pro aurum rustic! dicebant').
'Eu was pronounced eou (as in Italian Europa).
'Ei like the French eille (in corbeille), or like Spanish ey (in rejf),
or like Italian e'i (in le'i).
'Ui, like the French out, if the accent be shifted to the earlier part
of the diphthong {dUi, instead of oui) : the Italian ui (in fui) exactly
reproduces the Latin sound.
It is useless to say anything about the pronunciation of ae and 6e,
which at quite an early Latin period were transformed into e (as
in edus for hoedus, Mesius for Maesius).
§ 47. Further application of above-stated Principles. Inventory of
French Vowels.
I. The pure vowels. As is well known, the French alphabet is
very ill constructed ; for it has several orthographic signs for the same
sound, and, on the other hand, it is so meagre that it has to denote
several different sounds by the same letter : thus, for the one sound
THE VOWELS. xlix
0, it has the three signs o, au, and eau ; while for the two different
sounds of c, hard and soft, it has only one sign, c (as in calomnie
= kalomm'e, and cerveau = sefveau). Further on we shall explain the
grounds of this lack and surplus in French orthography, when we
treat of the history of the language; now we will only deal with
the list of French vowels, neglecting the multiple orthographic signs
which stand for one sound. The French vowels, then, are eleven
in number : a, d; e, ^(also written as e or ai); o, 6 (also written au,
eau); i (also written j/), i; u; ou; eu (also written oeu, as in boeu/,
and ue, as in accueillir).
If we compare this list with the Latin vocal sounds, we shall
see that the French language has gained the sounds ii and eu, and
the closed /, none of which existed in Latin; the letter u (which
in Latin marked the sound ou) is used in French to represent the
new sound u, and in order to represent the Latin sound, the ou
group has been created : thus murum has become mur, while ursus
is ours. Hence has come an unfortunate confusion : it would have
been better to keep for the letter u the sound it already had in Latin,
and to represent the Modern French u sound (as the Germans have
it) by u.
Another and more important gain to the French language is that
of the vague sound indicated by the name of the e mute. This
sound, unknown in Latin, is produced from every one of the Latin
vowels : thus the Latin a, e, i, o, u, have all alike become e mute,
as in rosam, rose; caballum, cheval; venire, venir ; fraXveva., frere ;
vestimentum, vetement; minutum., menu; conucla*, quenouille; ju-
niprum, genievre ; templimi, temple. Now if we draw the Latin vocal
triangle within a circle, the circumference will stand for the e mute,
that sound to which, in French, all the Latin vowels descend when
they become deadened ; thus —
e mute
emute
etnute
e mute
This loss of vocal power in the Latin final vowels had advanced
far at the time of the fall of the Empire ; and Inscriptions of that
e
1 INTRODUCTION.
period are full of such forms as domino for dominiun (see Schuchardt),
in which the final vowels are confused with one another and used
one for another, a confusion which shews how very undecided their
pronunciation had become : towards the seventh century all these
vowels were lost in one common sound, which was between the French
eu and o, an uniform sound which really required only one sign, and
has been represented in French orthography by the e mute. But
this symbol was not adopted at once : in the very first specimen of
the French language — the well-known Strasburg Oaths of a.d. 842 ^
— we find, two lines apart, two different signs for the silent final
vowels : thus the Latin fratrem is thrice rendered by fradre, once
hy /radra; instead o{ nStre, peuple, Charles, we find thus nostra, pobloy
Karlo, which is also written Karle. This difiiculty, experienced by
the scribe in rendering this new sound by a common and uniform
sign, may be seen at every step in the linguistic remains of the period
between the ninth and the eleventh century. After that time e is
always used to represent the mute sound. This letter was not chosen
because it answered to the e sound (for that new mute sound
would have been better represented by or eu than by e), but simply
because, as a matter of fact, of all the Latin final vowels, the e was the
one which occurred the most frequently. But this e mute, which now
is almost imperceptible in pronunciation, was, up to about the middle
of the sixteenth century, a distinct and sufficiently marked sound
(like the final still heard in the pronunciation of the Proven9al
peasantry, as in franciso, musico, pSsto, for frangaise, musique, posle).
Palsgrave, the old English grammarian, in his Esdaircissement de la
langue frangoise, a.d. 1530, says expressly (lib. i. regula 5, ed. G^nin,
p. 4) : ' If ^ be the laste vowell in a frenche worde beynge of many
syllables, eyther alone or with an s ffolowynge hym, the worde not
havyng his accent upon the same e, then shall he in that place sound
almost lyke an and very moche in the noose, as these wordes homme,
fimme, honeste, pdrle, hSmmes, /e'mmes, honesies, shall have theyr laste
e sounded in maner lyke an 0, as hommo,/emmo, hones io, par lo, hommos,
femmos, honestos : so that, if the reder lyft up his voyce upon the
syllable that commeth nexte before the same e, and sodaynly depresse
his voyce whan he commeth to the soundynge of hym, and also
sounde hym very moche in the noose, he shall sounde e beyng written
in this place accordyng as the Frenchmen do. Whiche upon this
warnynge if the lerner wyll observe by the frenchmen's spekynge,
he shall easely perceive.' Then, passing from theory to practice,
Palsgrave gives us (p. 56) the pronunciation as it ought to be : La
tr/s honnore'e magnificence {la-tres-ounororio-manifisdnso) : secretaire du
roy nostre sire {secretdyro - deu - ray - nStro - siro) ; glorieuse renommee
{glorieUzo renoumme'o). This leaves us no room to doubt what was
^ See the Historical Grammar, p. 14.
I
the
THE VOWELS.
the pronunciation of the e mute at that time, and shews that it was
plainly discernible.
How to study the transit of the Latin Vowels into French,
and the Rules of Accent.
§ 48. If we compare words to a living organism, the consonants
will be the bones, which can only move by help of the vowels, which
are the connecting muscles. The vowels then are the fugitive and
shifting part of a word ; the consonants its stable and resisting part.
Hence the permutation of vowels is subject to less certain laws than
that of consonants ; they pass more readily from one to another.
The Latin vowels must be studied in two ways, — as to quantity,
and as to accent.
1. As to their quantity ; they may be short like the e of ferum,
long by nature like the e of avena, or long by position ^ like the e of
ferrum. This distinction may seem trifling, but is really far from un-
important ; for, following these three differences of quantity, the Latin
e is transformed into French in three diff"erent ways : the short e be-
comes ie (ferus, fier) ; the long e becomes oi (avena, avoine) ; and
the e long by position does not change (ferrum, y^r).
2. As to their accent ; in every word of more syllables than one
there is always one syllable on which the voice lays more stress than
on the others. This raising of the voice is called the * tonic accent,' or
more simply, the ' accent.' Thus in the word raison the accent is on
the last syllable ; in raisonndble, it is on the last but one. This syl-
lable, on which the voice lays more stress than on the others, is called
the ' accented ' or * tonic ' syllable : the others are unaccented, or, as the
Germans name them, ' atonic ' ^. The tonic accent gives to each
word its proper physiognomy, its special character ; it has been well
called ' the soul of words.' In the French language the accent is
always placed on one of two syllables ; — on the last when the termina-
tion is masculine^ (as chanteiir, aime'r,finir, recevrd) ; on the penulti-
mate when the termination is feminine (as r6ide,p6rche, voyage). In
Latin also, the accent occupies one of two places; penultimate, when
^ A term borrowed from Latin prosody, which so calls words followed
by two consonants, which are * long by position,' not by nature.
^ In short, every word has one accented syllable, and only one ; the rest
are unaccented, or atonic ; thus, in the word formule, the last syllable is
tonic, the other vowels are unaccented ; in Latin, in cantorem, the penul-
timate is accented, the others are atonic.
^ That is to say, when the word does not end with e mute ; when it
ends with e mute, the termination is said to be feminine.
e 2
Hi INTRODUCTION.
that syllable is long (as cantorem, amare, finire), antepenultimate,
when the penultimate syllable is short (rigidus, porticus, viaticum).
We have just seen how important it is, with a view to the origin of
the French language, to distinguish the quantity of the Latin vowels.
It is still more so to distinguish their accent ; the tonic and atonic
vowels do not change into the same vowels in French.
We will now state the five rules of Phonetics : they are the
fundamental laws for the transformation of Latin into French, and
of the constitution of the French word.
§ 49. I. The Latin Accent always survives in French ; i.e. the
tonic accent always remains in the French on that syllable which it
occupied in the Latin word ; whether that syllable was the penulti-
mate, as in amdre, aimer ; t6mplum, temple ; or the antepenult, as
ordcTilum, oracle; articulus, article ; durdbilis, durable. Thus we
see that the accented syllable is the same in each language ^
In studying the fate of the other syllables, which are of course all
atonic, we must distinguish between those which come after the tonic
syllable, as the e of cantorem, and those which precede it, as the a
of cantorem..
We will first consider those which follow the tonic syllable ; they
can occupy only one of two places, the last syllable, or the last
but one, when it is a short syllable.
§ 50. II. Every atonic Latin vowel, in the last syllable of a
WORD, DISAPPEARS IN French. — Thus, m^re, mer ; amare, aimer ;
porcus, pore ; mortdlis, mortel; or, which is in fact the same thing, it
is written as an e mute, as ^wsi\x^, ferme ; templum, temple.
§ 51. III. When the penultimate of a Latin word is atonic,
the Latin vowel disappears in French. — In words accented on the
antepenult, as ordculum, tabula, articulus, durabilis the penultimate
vowel is necessarily short in Latin ; this vowel, being absorbed by the
tonic vowel preceding it, was scarcely sounded at all; the refined
Romans may have given it a slight sound, but the popular voice
neglected altogether such delicate shades of pronunciation. In
all the remains of popular Latin that have come down to us (the
Graffiti of Pompeii, inscriptions, epitaphs, &c.), the short penultimate
is already gone : we find oraclum, tabla, postus, moblis, vincre,
suspendre, &c. ^; and when this common Latin became French,
the words thus contracted became in turn oracle, table, poste, meuble,
vaincre, suspendre, &c. Indeed, by the law which forbids the French
^ We are not speaking here of words of learned origin ; these rules
refer only to words of popular origin.
^ In more than one case the short penultimate had already disappeared
even in classical Latin, as in saeclum, poclum, vinclum.
THE VOWELS. liii
language to throw the accent farther back than the penultimate syl-*^"^?^
lable, it was compelled, if it would retain the Latin accent in its proper
place in words formed from oraculum, tabula, &c., to suppress the
short u of the penultimate, and to say oracle, table, &c.
We have now considered the two classes of atonic syllables which
follow the tonic syllable, let us go on to enquire according to
what law atonies which precede the tonic syllable pass into French.
These atonies may be divided into two classes : those which precede
the tonic syllable immediately, as the o of derogare, and those which
are at a farther distance from it, as the e of derogare.
§ 52. IV. Every AxoNit Latin vowel which immediately precedes
THE TONIC SYLLABLE DISAPPEARS IF IT IS SHORT, REMAINS IF IT IS
LONG \ — It disappears if short, as sanitatem, bonitatem, positura
becom2 sante, bonM, posture'^. It remains if long, as coemeterium,
ornamentum, cimetiere, ornemeni.
§ 53. V. Every atonic Latin vowel which precedes the tonic
SYLLABLE AT A GREATER DISTANCE REMAINS IN THE FrENCH. — ThuS the
o in positura remains in the French posture ; sanitatera, sant^ ; ves-
tim6ntum, vitement. (See the Dictionary, s.v, ble', briller.)
CHAPTER II.
History of the Latin Vowels.
Thus, by help of the Latin accent, and the quantity of syllables,
we have fixed the five laws according to which the Latin vowels dis-
appear or remain in passing into French. Let us now reconsider these,
and see whether the French language has retained intact the vowels
it has received from the Latin, or has altered them, and, if so, after
what laws. This study of Latin vowels in their nature must be
thus divided — first the simple vowels (a, e, i, o, u), then the diph-
thongs (ae, oe, au, eu), and each of these subdivided again into
accented and atonic.
History of A.
§ 54. I. The Latin a, when long by position, remains, as arbor,
^ For examples, see the Dictionary, s.v. able, affable, ancre, asperge.
* For examples, see the Dictionary, s.v. accointer, aider. I have also
rorked out these two laws in detail in the Jahrbuch fur romanische Lit-
tratur (Leipzig, 1867).
" In a very few instances it becomes e (see acheter'), or at (see aigle).
liv INTRODUCTION.
2. The Latin a and a, treated alike in French, become ai before
the liquids /, m, n, if these consonants are followed by a vowel.
This at answers also to e, and is found under that form in the
suffix len (see ana'en), which stands for iai'n by a slight alteration.
3. a and a may also become at, by the attraction of the t, in words
which have the accent on the antepenultimate, when the t is con-
sequently penultimate (see dnier).
4. a and a become e before the rest of the simple consonants ;
they become an open e before a consonant followed by r {br, tr,
dr, pr) ^, as fratrem, frere ; they become a closed e before mute
consonants (see abbi), and before final consonants.
5. a and a become also ie in some words like canis, chien ; gravis,
grief; pietatem, pili^ ; but this has been arrived at by passing
through <?, and then by strengthening the e with an i, which has
produced the diphthong I
History of E.
§ 55. We have already said (§ 46) that the Latin e was sounded
by the Romans like the open French e in aprh ; and e was a similar
but longer sound, like the French e in tete.
L— E.
§ 56. The Latin e becomes a diphthong ie in French (except before
gutturals): as in ferum, jff^ry mel, miel ; fel, fiel ; pedem, pied;
tenet, iient ; venit, vient ; -getvaiXCi, pierre ; febviva, fievre ; deretro,
derriere ; palpebram, paupiere ^ : and this tendency to turn e into
a diphthong is so strong that it affects even the French ^ in position
and treats it as e before a simple consonant; as in ped(i)ca,
piege ; lep(o)rem, lievre ; tep(i)duiQ, tiede ; eb(u)luin, hieble ; he-
^ R in this case does not lengthen the preceding vowel by position.
2 a becomes / in eerasus, cerise ; in tabanus, taon ; phiala,/o/^.
^ Brefirom. brevis, tu es from es, are not true exceptions to this rule ;
for in Old French the words were more correctly brief and tu ies : the
words have been re-fashioned by the clerks and latinists of the close of
the middle ages, in order that they might be brought to a nearer re-
semblance to the Latin forms. The only true exception is et from et.
Such words as lepra, lepre ; tenebras, tenebres ; celeber, celebre, are
learned, not popular, words.
THE VOWELS. Iv
d(e)ra, lierre ^ The history of the change of e into the diphthong
ie is very short; it did not take place in Latin times, for there is
no trace in the common Latin of that strengthening of the sound
which is got by the change into a diphthong le; still the common
Latin bears witness in its own way to the need it felt of strengthening
the short e ; for we find it constantly written ae after the sixth cen-
tury : thus inscriptions and barbarous diplomas always write paedem
for pedem, faerum for ferum, paetra for petra; an important fact,
which shews, not that the Mer^viugians pronounced e as ae, but
that they gaye^^the. | so much emphasis as to oblige Jhe_.s^^^
find _a distinct _symbol to expxess„iha..ne.w, 5Qu.nd. From the ninth
century downwards ze is found (as c aelum, d el, in the Song of St.
Eulalia ; ' Qu'elle Deo raneiet chi maent sus en del,' literally ' Quod
ilia Deum renegabit qui manet sursum in caelo ').
The only word which is a true exception to this rule is Dieu from
Deum, D6um first became, in very early French, De'o, and is so
written in the Oaths of a.d. 842 ; it is also written Deu in the eleventh
century in the Oxford Psalter (Ps. 149, 6) ^; then Diu, by the change
of eu into , m. Next the accent was displaced, Diu becoming
Dm, and the strong diphthong a weak one. Finally, Dm becomes
Dieu, just as plus becomes pieux.
§ 57. Let us pass to the case of e in a word accented on the ante-
penult, and followed by eus, ius, ia, ium : we shall see that it becomes
ie in levium, lie'ge ; ministerium, me'iier ; melius, O. Fr. miels,
mieux ; but i in imperium., empire ; pretium, prix ; mLedium, mi ;
ingenium., engin ; species, e'pice.
§ 58. Before gutturals e and e are treated in the same manner
in passing into French ; we shall therefore treat of these together,
although this chapter properly deals with e only.
E and e before a guttural pass into i (this influence of gut-
turals in like manner affects a, by transforming it into ai) :
thus, nee, ni ; decem, dix ; legit, lii^ ; peius, pis; vervecem,
^ The exceptions are gen(e)rum., gendre ; ten(e)rumi, tendre ; and this
exception is doubtless due to an intercalated euphonic d, which made a
group of these consonants, and weighted the word so heavily, that it was
easier to keep the short e than to pronounce the diphthong ie. Merle
(mer(u)la), was written correctly mierle in Old French, and transformed
into merle by the learned.
2 For the accentuation of this Psalter, and its value as helping to fix
the history and pronunciation of the French vowels, I refer the reader
to my article in the Reruue Critique, 1871, ii. 247.
^ Legit is written ligit in several Merovingian documents of the seventh
century : this i was certainly pronounced very much like ei, and did not
take the sound of i pure till after it had received its French form.
Ivi
INTRODUCTION.
hrehis ; and this tendency is a very early one, for we can trace
the change from e into i even in the common Latin (as berbicem
for vervecem in the Lex Salica). Before hard g and c, e and e
change to oi ; as legem, loi ; neco, noie.
The chronological evolution of e may be expressed thus : —
e (as in pedem, medium, legit, &c.)
i
ae (in the 6th century,
nq ^ as paedem)
2 <T>
^ ft)
ie (from the 9th cent, as pied).
i in the 3rd century before
^ ^ gutturals, &c., as ligit,
;5 p- midium, &c.)
5 3
/ (from the 8th century ; as //V,
mi^ dix^ &c.).
IL— B.
§ 59. E is found to have taken the i form in early common Latin
documents ; and Inscriptions of as early a date as the second century
(see Schuchardt, i. 104) are full of such forms as mercidem, dibet,
virus, cadire, capire, tradire. This i must have had a sound inter-
mediate between closed / and pure i (perhaps one something like
that of the French ei in veille), for it has taken two different French
sounds, as i on the one side (mercedem, mercidem, merci) and
as ei on the other side, whence comes the oi of Modern French
(thus verum. Low Lat. virum. Old Fr. veir, Mod. Fr. voir). We
must consider these two developments of the Latin e in detail, and
trace the path by which they have at last arrived at two such very
different results.
§ 60. To clear the way ^, let us begin by at once making out a
list of the words which have sharpened into a pure i the natural
tendency of the Latin e to become i in Merovingian days : e became
i before a simple consonant (except the nasals) in the following words :
mercedem, merci; cera, cire ; berbecem, brebis ; presus *, pris ;
pagesis *, pays ; marchesis *, marquis ; and sometimes even before a
^ In a very few instances, and before /, n only, e continues unchanged :
strena, etrenne; candela, chandelle; crudelis, cruel. All other cases of
the continuance of the e, such as severus, se'vere; extradere, extrader^
are cases of learned words.
THE VOWELS. Ivii
nasal, as in venenum, venin ; saracenus, sarrasin ; racemus, raisin ;
pullicenum, poussin ; pergamemum., parchemin ^.
§ 61. Before the nasal consonants, e, after becoming ?', is developed
into ei; just as before the nasals a becomes ai (§ 54). This e, which
became ei before a nasal at the very origin of the French language, was
accentuated on the former vowel, and was pronounced sonorously,
like the /?' in Ital. ///. In the eleventh century we find in the Oxford
Psalter (of which we have already spoken in § 56) the forms con-
se'il, ceint, vie'il, veine ; and, in the sixteenth century, Palsgrave gives
us the true pronunciation of ei in his * Example howe prose shulde
be sounded' (Book i. p. 57). There he writes the phrase conseil de la
souverdyne, by the phonetic forms ' counsey de la sovuerdyne! After
the sixteenth century ^i was flattened into ei, then into /: thus vena
was vina in Merovingian Latin, veine in the eleventh century, veine
in the sixteenth, and now is pronounced vene, though still written
veine, a form which remains as an orthographic indication of the
old pronunciation which has gone. The like change is to be found
in serena, sereine ; verbena, verveine ; balena, baleine ; ren, rein;
plenum, plein ; frenum, frein ^ / and in some cases this ei has dropt
to oi, as avena, O. Fr. aveine, Mod. Fr. avoine ; fenum, O. Fr. fein,
now foin ; and indeed the process has gone yet further, and has
reached to ai, as terrenum, terrain ^.
§ 62. Before a simple consonant (except the nasals) e becomes
oi, in : habere, avoir ; sapere, savoir ; debere, devoir ; sedere, seoir ;
raesiB'^ , mois ; hourgesia* , bourgeois ; regem., roi ; legem., loi; serus,
soir ; verus, voir; heres, hoir ; me, mot; te, loi; se, soi; tres,
trois ; tela, toile ; velum, voile ; in which words oi is pronounced as
French oua : in a few other cases oi has gone and is replaced by
ai : thus theca, O. Fr. loie, taie ; creta, O. Fr. croie, craie ; alnetum,
O. Fr. Aunoi, Aunay ; franeesis *, O. Fr. Frangois, Frangais.
But hitherto we have only stated the mechanical facts of these
changes; we must also describe their history, and point out (i) how
e becomes oi ; (2) how, and in what cases 02' becomes ai.
§ 63. How e becomes oi, and then ai.
We have seen already (§ 60) that before nasal consonants the
classical Latin e becomes i in Merovingian Latin, then a sonorous
^ For the nasal sound of i in in, see § 73.
2 Notice that ei is sounded like e when n has continued to be sounded,
as in sereine, •veine; while it takes the nasal sound of in in words of a
masculine termination, such as frein, plein, whose ein is sounded exactly
like the in of -venin, raisin : for this nasalisation, see § 73.
^ In the body of the Dictionary will be found the explanation of the two
exceptions, remus, rame ; sebum, suif.
Iviii INTRODUCTION.
ei in the oldest French monuments, then was stopped in its progress,
and was flattened to I. Before all other consonants, on the contrary,
this development was not so suddenly arrested : thus debere, francesis,
become successively debire, francisis (seventh century), deveir,
fran^e'is (tenth century). At the end of the tenth century this
sonorous // became a sonorous Si'^, and we get devoir ^ frangSis. By
the end of the twelfth century this sonorous 6i is softened into a
sonorous 6e : just as the Latin foidere, Coilius became foedere,
Coelius, so devSir, frangois changed their pronunciation and became
devSer, frangSes. But it may be noticed that at the end of the
twelfth century it was a characteristic and uniform mark of French
vocalisation, that it weakened all the strong diphthongs, and that the
accent passed from the first vowel of the diphthong to the second :
then devoer, frangSes became devoe'r, frangoe's. In this thirteenth-
century pronunciation the modern pronunciation can already be
recognised ; for Modern French has been formed by the simple change
of the strong diphthong into a weak one.
Let us now sum up this first period of the evolution of change by
means of a table : —
Classical Latin . .
. . e
1
Merovingian Latin .
1
. . i
1
Tenth century . .
. . ei
1
Before a.d. 1050 . .
1
. . oi
1
After A.D. 1050 . .
I
. . oe
1
Twelfth century . .
1^
. . oe
From the fourteenth century onward a new evolution of oe' begins
to take place, and this in two directions : (i) 0^' advances towards
a more closed sound ; (2) towards a more open sound.
1. The closed sound. — Just as the Latin foem.ina, coelum, poena,
coena, quickly took the weaker forms femina, eelum, pena, cena,
so did the French 0/ in certain cases drop to the weaker e (between
the thirteenth and the fifteenth century) : thus the pronunciation
Frangois, Angloes^ dropped to the simple sound Frange's, Angle's.
^ By sonorous oi I mean the sound of oi in the English word 'voice
(which is also the Italian and Greek oi) ; that is to say, a strong diphthong,
accented on the first part, in contradistinction to the sound of the Modern
French oi ( = Fr. oua), which is a weak diphthong, accented on the last
vowel.
THE VOWELS. lix
This new sound is often, in documents before the seventeenth cen-
tury, rendered by e, which is its proper symbol; but for the most
part the Old French spelling in oi was kept, as in Frangois, Anglois,
although it in no way answered to the pronunciation. In order
to end this discrepancy between the sound and the spelling, Nicolas
B^rain (a.d. i68i?), and after him Voltaire, proposed to represent
by ai'^ the sound so ill represented by oi ; it would have been more
logically proper had this sound, really an open e, been expressed
by e ; but at was chosen, a symbol which simply still farther in-
creases the orthographic difficulties of the French language. Adopted
and pushed by Voltaire, the fashion of spelling in ai triumphed,
and the French Academy adopted it authoritatively, to the exclusion
oi 01, in the sixth edition of its Dictionary (a.d. 1835).
II. The open sound. — In another direction, oe instead of becoming
weaker constantly gathered strength. From 0^ in the fifteenth century
it passed to the sound oue, transformed in the sixteenth by popular
usage into oua. Palsgrave, in his specimens of French pronunciation
(a.d. 1535), Book i. p. 61, gives us droit, vicioire, pronounced as
droat, vicioare. Still this pronunciation of oi as oa, which was that
of the Parisian citizens (as Henri Estienne tells us), was not at
once adopted by the court and the literary circles : they retained the
oue' sound for more than two centuries. Moli^re makes fun of the
peasantry for saying oua for oi', and Louis XIV and Louis XV used
to say un ouezeau (oiseau), la /oue {/oi), la hue {lot) : the oua sound
did not triumph finally till the end of the eighteenth century. The (
stage stuck to oue up to the beginning of the present century ; and |
Lafayette in 1830 pronounced le roi, le roue'. The oua sound, — which
has two shades of pronunciation, oua when it stands at the end of
a word, as /oua {/oi), loua {loi) ; and oa when the word has a final
consonant which is sounded, as devoir, gloire, vidoire, — is then ex-
pressed in French by oi, which is the eleventh century orthography.
By this example may be seen how in certain cases orthography falls
far behind the progress of pronunciation.
§ 64. The study of the history and developments of the Latin e
will best be shewn by the following table : —
^ This ai at a later time became confounded with e, and finally sup-
planted it, very wrongly; for the two symbols e and ai originally re-
presented two entirely different sounds.
C«
w
H
O
a
PQ
<1
O
t— I
o
o
o
o
INTRODUCTION.
g w g «
J^ 2 " -^
_•« a a o .
r o o o o
>. >»
i
c o
i2 o
r«5-
i2
__.^^ <» 'W
« Z
O J2
H
H
•5 S
.ti'^
O C 3 3
ir o fe o
Cm w> > en
w no
.5 h So
•£<5j5
THE VOWELS. Ixi
III. — E in Position.
§ 65. E in Latin position (i. e. when it is followed in the Latin
word by two consonants) always remains unchanged : as herba, her be ;
testa, teie ; festa, fete ; fernim, /er ; inferniun, enfer ; hibemum,
hiver^ ; except that before gutturals the e is 'iotacised,' or passes
into the i form, under the usual influence (§ 58) of the guttural:
and this either into /.' as pectus, />u/ lectum, lit ; confectum, confit ;
sex, six ; despectum, de'pit ; or into ei, as sed'cim, tred'cim, seize,
treize ; and later on this ei becomes oi, as tectum, toit ; cresco
(by transposition crecso*), crois ; directiun (Low Lat. dirictum,
drietum, O. Fr. dreii), droit ; and finally into ai, as in paresco (Low
Lat. parisco, O. Fr. pareis, then parois), parais.
For e becoming ei, oi, and ai, see §§ 61, 62, 63.
§ 66. E in French position (i. e. when followed in the later
stages of transition by two consonants), as debita, deb'ta, dette.
1. e is treated as if it were not in position, and therefore it follows
the course of e, which passes into ie (§ 56): as lep(6)rein, lievre ;
ped(i)ca, /"/^"^ / tep(i)dus, tiede ; eb(u)luni, Jiieble, &c. ^
2. e in position remains unchanged: as deb(i)ta, dette ; quadra-
ges(i)ma, careme ; cler(i)cus, clerc, &c.
And this may be thus expressed : —
E in Latin position
I -^ -1
before gutturals becomes continues as e, except
Merovingian i, before gutturals ; as
which passes into whence Fr. / ;
1 . ei ; as sed'cim, seize, as lectum., //'/.
2. oi; as tectum, toit,
3. ai; as -pareaco, parais.
herba, berbe.
^ The only true exceptions are lucerna, lucarne, and lacerta, le%ard:
in the Dictionary will be found the history of each of these exceptional
forms. The change of e into a before r (as is also seen in per, par) follows
a secondary law which is explained in my Memoire sur le changement de
/'e latin en a, in the Memoires de la Societe de Linguistique, i. 418. In
niece from neptia, tiers from tertius, the ie has been formed by the
transposition of the i; as also in siecle, which is a bad and semi-learned
form, as is shewn by the retention of the c ; seule would have been the
good form of the word.
^ Merula, posterula, and asperagus*, have been treated as if they
had an e in Latin position ; and have given rise to merle, poterne,
asperge.
Ixii INTRODUCTION.
E in French position
I ' 1
if e, if e,
becomes ie ; as remains unchanged ; as
lep(o)rein, lie'vre. dericus, clerc,
§ 67. General r^sumd of the passage of the Latin e into the French
language : —
I. e always becomes ie (except before gutturals, when it always
becomes i).
• 2. e becomes t, which sometimes, though very seldom, con-
tinues as t ; but usually passes on to ei, oi, ai.
3. e in Latin position always remains unchanged (except before
gutturals, when it becomes i)\ e in French position re-
mains as ^, if long ; becomes z<?, if short.
History of I.
L— i.
§ 68. The Latin i is treated in common Latin, and also in
French, as if it was e. We have seen, § 63, that the classical Latin
e took in common Latin an iotacised sound, like ei, which became
i, and was developed consecutively into ei in Old F>ench before
the eleventh century ; then into oi, as legem, ligem, le% hi.
Similarly the Latin i, in Merovingian times, was sounded like ei,
and written in Merovingian texts as e\ which simply became e'i in
very early French, then 6i\ as fidem, Merovingian Latin fedem,
O. Fr. fei, then foi.
This remarkable parallel may be best seen by the following
table :—
Classical Latin e (legem). i (fidem.).
Merov. Latin, i, pronounced 6i (ligem). e, pronounced 6i (fedem).
French of the nth century . . . eiQei,fei).
After that date oi (Jot, foi).
^ The forms vecem, bebere, fedem, menus, &c., for vicem, bibere,
fidem, minus, &c., occur in Inscriptions of the times of the Empire:
and this pronunciation of i as //', expressed by e, dates from very early
times ; for we find in Varro ' Rustici nunc viam . . veham appellant.'
THE VOWELS. Ixiii
This change of i into ot through O. Fr. ei, is also to be found
in pirum, poire ; pilum, poil ; picem, poix ; nigrum, noir ; minus,
moins ; sit, soil ; &itim,soi/; Yisim.,voie; iidem., foi ; \yi\y've, boire ;
pip'r, poivre ; Lig'rim, Loire ^ For details, and for the history
of the passage from Old French ei into oi, see above, § 61.
IL— I.
§ 69. i usually remains in French: as nidum, nid ; ripa, rive ;
fvsMsm., fin ; vinum, 57z«/ ■gYYrQ.^x![n., prin (m prinie?nps) ; s\Q,si; vita,
vie ; pica, />z"<? ; and so too in the suffixes ills, il; as Aprilis, avril ;
icem = is, ix, as perdicem, perdrix ; radicem, rais (in raifort) ;
icum, icam = ?', ie, as am.icum, ami; vesica, vessie ; inum = ?>/, as
molinum, moulin ; ire = ir, as audire, ouir ; itum = i, as maritum,
mari ; ivum = ?/] as captivum, cMiif^.
§ 70. Before a consonant followed by ius (eus), ia, ium, this 1,
whether long or short, usually remains: as filius, fil ; cilium, cil ;
servitium, service ; — lineum, linge ; tibiam, tige ; simia, singe ; —
familia famille; fili&,, fille ; linea, ligne ; vinea, vigne. In a few
cases, however, this i passes into ei (pronounced like e, as we have
seen in § 61): as consilium, conseil ; mirabilia, merveille ; nivea,
neige ; tinea, teigne : insignia, enseigne : and this ei, pronounced as
e, is met with in the latter form in vicia, vesce ; tristitia, tristesse ;
laetitia, Hesse ; -j^i^vitiEi, par esse ^.
The history of the passage of the Latin ~ and " into the French
language may be shewn as follows : —
^ Sinus has stopped at sein, and vitrum at n^erre, because these
monosyllables instinctively keep all the strength they can. The Dictionary
explains how it is that sine has become sans : mine, ligo, plico, formed
the regular O. Fr. moine, loie, ploie; and these again have been reformed
in Modern French into mene, lie, plie. The only true exceptions are
eicer, chiche ; librum, li-vre (but the quantity of librum was uncertain);
other words, such as tigris, tigre, &c., are of learned origin.
^ Patrinum, parrain ; matrina, marraine, at first changed the i into
ei (§ 70), whence O. Fr. parrein, marreine : for the change from ei to «i,
see §§ 61, 62, 63. Glirem, loir; pisum, pois, have treated the i as if it
were i : perhaps pois, which in regular course ought to have been pis, is so
formed in order to escape from the confusion between pis from pectus,
and pis from peius, and also pic from picus. Cer'voise does not come
from cerevisia, but from cervisa.
^ See above, § 2. This change of i into e is also to be met with in vidua,
vidva, vedva, 've've, 'vewve. Courroie, from corrigia, has treated the i as
if it were i, see § 68.
Ixiv
INTRODUCTION.
In Merovingian "I ' f^., ^ before ius, ia, before ius, ia, before any oth
times J ® <^^®^®°^>' ium ium letter it remain
always unchangi
/ ifds).
in I oth century . ei {fe't)
in nth century . oi (^foi) '
in nth century . 6e
in 1 2th century . oe {foi)
i (Jlle)
sometimes becomes
ei, as (^conseit), then
e (tristesje).
e one in 1 5th century,
as njerre from O. Fr. |
•voirre, vitrum. oua in i6th century.
III. — I in Position.
§ 71. I in Latin position is changed to e in Merovingian Latin ^ :
thus fermum, ceppum, mettere, for firmum, cippum, mittere, are
found in Inscriptions ; and this e, pronounced et (see § 66), has
produced two distinct French forms, according as it has preferred
the open e sound, or the i sound.
§ 72. (i) The e sound. — This is the usual way in which i in
position before all consonants, except the gutturals and nasals, is
changed : as ilia, elle ; axilla, aisselle ; firm.uin, ferme ; siccum, sec ;
missum, mets ; fissa, /esse ; arista, ar^ie ^ ; cippum, cep ; crista,
cr^te; evisT^a, cre'pe^.
^ For details and history of the development of oi, see the table which
gives the history of e, above, § 63.
^ i in position rarely remains unchanged; instances are ille, il ; villa, wl/e;
mille, mil ; millia, milk ; missum, mis (but also mets) ; scriptum, ecrit.
Such words as triste from tristis, argile from argilla, epitre from epistola,
are learned or half-learned words.
^ Illos, capillos, ilicem, have formed, quite regularly, the O. Fr. els,
chevels, yelce, whence, at a later time, by softening /into u (see § 157), came
the Modern French eux, che^eux, yeux. Vierge, from virgo, is an ex-
ception ; but in O. Fr. the correct form, virge, was in use.
* In en, from inde, the word has taken the sound of an, a sound
which appears orthographically in such words as langue, dans, sangle, tanche,
ceans, dimanche, from the Latin lingua, &c. : these words were correctly
written as lengue, dens, &c., in Old French.
THE VOWELS. Ixv
§ 73. (ii). The ei sound, before nasals, whether they are (i) pure :
as imprim(e)re, empreindre ; exprim(e)re, epreindre ; or (2) fortified
by a guttural : as eing(e)re, ceindre ; exstingu(e)re, eieindre ; tin-
g(e)re, teindre ; fmg(e)re, y^zWr^; T^in^{e)ve, peindre ; string(e)re,
etreindre \ For the history of this ei sound, see § 61.
§ 74. Before pure gutturals i first becomes ei, which later passes
into oi, and sometimes even into ai : as rig(i)dura, reide, roide, raide.
For the history of ei, oi, and ai, see §§ 61, 62, 63. But i is not in all
cases so fully developed ; in some words it even remains unchanged :
as periculiim, /£7V// GlsL-vicvlo,, cheville ; lenticvUa,, leniille ; craticula,
grille ; dictum, dit ; delictum, delii.
Before gl, ch, i drops to ei : as apic(u)la, aheille ; somnic(u)lus,
sommeil ; sicla*, seille ; vig(i)lo, veille ; triehila, ireille ; ovic(u)la,
O. Fr. otieille, now ouaille. (For ei = ai, see § 61.) Axic(u)lum. and
spic(u)lum made the O. Fr. aissieil, espieil, which, by the later soften-
ing of I to u (§ 157), have produced essieu, e'pieu.
It is only before c, g, followed by a dental, that the i is completely
developed : thus strictus, digitus, rigidus, frigidum, explicitum,
become O. Fr. estreit, deil, reide, freii, expleit, now elroit, doigt, roide,
froid, exploit'^. .This oi (following the rule given in § 63) becomes
ai in roide, raide ; but e in implicita, empleite *, emploiie *, now emplette.
To sum up : —
I in French position
becomes e in Merovingian Latin,
in nth century is open e
before all consonants in i ith century is ei (sonorous) before
except nasals and ^ j
gutturals. I
I
nasals gutturals
12th cent. «■ nasal remains as « becomes oi in
before/ 12th century
before dentals.
Why is constringere, contraindre, written with at f Vincire makes
-vaincre, though O. Fr. t^eincre. Benignus, maUgnus, keep the i, as benin,
malin : setng and daigne come, through O. Fr. sein, daingne, deingne, from
signum, digno. Signum remains as sin in tocsin.
The attraction of the i with gutturals is so strong that it makes itself
lelt, even though a consonant be between it and the gutturals : thus discus,
meniscus, theodiscus, become dicsus, menicsus, theodicsus, whence O. Fr.
dets, meneis, tieis, then dots (now dais), menois, tiois.
Ixri INTRODUCTION.
History of O.
I— O.
§ 75. 6 only continues unchanged in French in a very few cases ;
that is, before the nasals : as sono, sonne ; bonus, bon ; sonum, son ;
homo, on : this o, which was sonorous (like the Italian o) in the
earliest French, becomes nasal (on) from the twelfth century.^
§ 76. Before all other consonants 6 becomes a diphthong in
French, in consequence of the necessity of strengthening the accented
short vowels. In all the Romance tongues, except Portuguese, the
Latin 6 becomes a diphthong by placing u before it, the vowel
which comes next after it in the scale of vowels : just as e called in
t to form t'e, so 6 attracted u, and formed the group ud, some
traces of which are even to be found in popular Latin ^; it also
has produced the Italian uo (novuni, It. nuovd). This uo was softened
into ue in Spanish (novum, nuevo), and, still more, into eu in French
(novum, neuf). But the remark made above, that the Romance
tongues offer us in space the same phenomena as are presented
by the French language in time, is here again shewn to be just;
for the Latin 6 was uo in ninth-century French — the Hymn of St.
Eulalia has buona ; in the eleventh century this uo had softened into
ue : thus novum, proba *, were nuef, prueve in the Chanson de Roland.
In the twelfth century the u dropped to o, the group ue became oe,
whence noef, proeve ; this group, oe, in the thirteenth century takes the
sound of the German d (as the rhymes of that age clearly shew).
Now, this German '6 being expressed in French by eu, the oe group
was transcribed into eu towards the end of the fourteenth century. It
may be noticed that, here as elsewhere, orthography has taken two
centuries to accommodate itself to pronunciation. Hence comes the
modern orthography of noviim, neuf; novem, neuf; proba, preuve ;
m.ovita*, meute ; volo, veux ; mola, meule ; Mesa, Meuse ; coquus,
queux; dolium*, ^<?«z7/ fd\i&,, feuille ; aolea.* , seui'l ; jocum, j'eu : also
locum, O. Fr. /eu, now written h'eu, just as Deu has become Di'eu.
But here also there are many orthographical irregularities : although
the pronunciation is eu, we find even now (i) the orthographical
twelfth-century form ue in accueillir, orguetl, cueillir^ : (2) the ortho-
* Let us add the two words, schola, ecole ; rota, O. Fr. roe, now roue.
^ Schuchardt, ii. 329, cites buona for bona in a MS. of the seventh
century.
^ While the O. Fr. muete, from movita, was changed in regular course
to meute in Modern French, the old form remained in the hunting-term
muette, a. house in which hunting relays are kept : hence comes the name
La Muette, a chateau in the Bois de Boulogne, mentioned in the cor-
respondence of the eighteenth century.
THE VOWELS.
Ixvii
graphic form oeu, which is still more uncouth, is bovem, bceuf;
sororem, soeur ; cor coeur, which were buef, siier, cuer in the twelfth
century. This strange orthography was invented by the copyists,
who were embarrassed by ue, oe, and eu ; they got rid of the
difficulty by a compromise between oe and eu; that is, by sticking
these two diphthongal forms together {pe-\-eu = oeu). This ceu is even
reduced to ce, in ml. We must not be deceived by these irregularities
of the written language ; we must never forget that the true language,
the spoken tongue, is, on the contrary, perfectly regular in its
aevelopments.
§ 77. After reaching eu, the Latin 6 usually remains stationary : it
does, however, sometimes undergo a change, and descends to u :
thus forum was first O. Fr. /uer, then /eur, now /ur : and the O. Fr.
meure, deu, meu, meutin, bleuet, peure'e, have dropped to mure, bu, mil,
mutin, bluet, pure'e. Gageure is still pronounced gagure.
To sum up : —
Latin 6
before all consonants
except the gutturals
becomes
1
in 6th century Merovingian uo
I
in 9th century French . . uo
in nth century French . . ue
in 12th century French . . oe
in 1 3th century French . , eu (0)
written alike as
ue, eu, ceu, oe,
before the nasals
in the i ith cent, on (sonorous)
in the 12th cent, on (nasal).
remains as eu
I
drops to u in i6th cent.
IL— O.
§ 78. 6 in popular Latin early took a sound intermediate between
pure and ou — a sound which transcribers expressed by u : thus
we find honur, amur, neputem, nus, vus, &c., in the Inscriptions
of the fifth century, and in later Merovingian diplomas.
This new sound passed into the French language, which, in the
eighth century, in the Glosses of Cassel, has lu/li, purcelli, iundi ;
in the ninth century, in the Oaths of a.d. 842, we find amur, dunat,
returnar, nun ; while side by side with these are om, contra, non, which
f 2
iil
Ixviii INTRODUCTION.
shews clearly how undecided^as the scribe as to the best way of
expressing this new sound, rendering iFsometimes by u, sometimes
by 0. From the ninth to the eleventh century it is usually noted by
u by French scribes : thus we commonly find, till the twelfth century,
duner, amur, ublier, sun, tute^ hume, lur {leur), in all French texts ^:
after the twelfth century the French scribes seem to prefer o to express
this sound ^, and write amor, honor, lor, oblier, tote, &c. Finally, the
thirteenth century abandons this misleading orthography (which did
not express the true sound, and made a confusion between o and u),
and created the two special notations eu and ou, for the two sounds
into which the Latin 6 sound is divided.
§ 79. 6 passes regularly into eu (save in the cases stated below) :
as nepotem, neveu ; horam, heure ; florem, fleur ; cotem, queux ;
mobilis, meuble; illorum., leur; solum., seul; mores, moeurs; nodum,
noeud; votiim, voeu ; ovum, ceuf^; seniorem, seigneur: and all
suffixes in osum become eux : as virtutosum *, vertueux ; pedu-
culosum *, pouilleux ; ventosum, venteux * .* suffixes in orem be-
come eur : as dolorem., douleur ; honorem., honneur ; im.peratorem.,
empereur^. Before we end, let us say that this eu coming from 6
(and expressed in the twelfth century by o, in the tenth and in
Merovingian Latin by u), cannot be confounded with the eu which
comes from 6 (expressed in the twelfth century by oe, in the eleventh
by ue, in the ninth by uo, see § 77).
§ 80. Sometimes eu drops to u : thus morum becomes O. Fr.
meure, but from the sixteenth century mure,
§ 81. There are a few cases (chiefly before dentals between two
vowels) in which 6 prefers to become ou : as nodo, noue ; voto, zjoue ;
doto, doue : and to these let us add sposus *, /poux ; nos, nous ; vos,
vous ; totum, tout ; amorem, amour ; zelosum, jaloux,
§ 82. Before the nasals, 6, after becoming u in the eleventh century,
settles down as o in the twelfth century ; first as sonorous o (§ 75),
^ And the editors of medieval works are wrong in concluding hence
that in these words u was pronounced as Modern French u: it is easy
to see, by means of rhymes of the period, that the pure u sound (like mur^
from Latin u in m.urum.) never rhymes with such a word as amur (from
Latin o in amorem).
^ On the other hand Anglo-Norman scribes retain the orthography in
tt, a fact which for a long time kept alive the belief that this u was the
distinctive sign of the Norman dialect; it is so, in fact, only from the
thirteenth century.
^ In the words mceurs, nceud, 'vceu, ceufs, the oeu for eu is an unlucky
imitation of the ceu group, already treated in § 76.
* A remarkable exception is to be seen in zelosum, jaloux : compare
^lou, gabelou, for Jileur, gabeleur.
^ Amorem, amour, forms a single and singular exception. Labour is
simply the verbal substantive of labourer , and is therefore no exception.
THE VOWELS. Ixix
then as nasal on (§ 75) thus leonem, donum, nomen, after having
been leun, dun, num in the eleventh century, are fixed as lion, don,
nam in Modern French.
§ 83. Before the gutturals 6 is ' iotacised ; ' and, just as a becomes ai,
and e ei, so o becomes 6i, which in the eleventh century is sonorous,
like the Italian voi, but is weakened in the twelfth century into the
modern oi ; as vocem, votx. For the history of French oi, see § 63.
§ 84. Before proparoxytons in eus, ea, eum, ius, ia, ium, the 6
attracts to it the i, and then one of two results follow: either (i)
the o remains, while it softens the subsequent consonant; either
continuing as o, as in ciconia, cigogne^, or following the regular
changes into eu, as folia, feuille ; solium, seuil ; or into ou, as
de-ex-spoliare, de'pouilkr (as is expounded in §§ 78, 79) : or (2) the
6 is * iotacised/ and becomes ui, as corium, cuir ; podium, pui ;
m.odium., muid ; hodie, hui ; oleum, huile ; troja, iruie : and this
sound afterwards drops to oivi\ eboreum*, ivoire ; m.onius *, moine ;
testimonium, temoin; dormitorium, dortoir ; gloria, gloire; historia,
histoire ^.
To sum up : —
O
In Merovingian Latin u
I
in 9th century either u or c, indifferently,
t
in nth century by | | |
preference . . u but ui before propar- oi before gutturals in
I I oxytons nth century,
I nth cent, oi
in 1 2 th century by | |
preference . . 12th cent, ot 12th cent, ot
I ' 1
which divides in 13th which is strengthened into
cent, into pure before nasals
I ' 1 I
eu ou on nasal, in Modern
f— ;— ' 1 French.
remains eu u in i6th cent.
(as morum, mure')
^ Cicogne is a learned word ; and the true popular form of it is O. Fr.
soigne, which remains in the derivative soignole, from ciconiola {the le-ver
of a well, in Isidore of Seville).
"^ This oi, coming from Latin o + i, must not be confounded with oi
which comes from e or i: (1) because oi from o + i was never ei, whilst the
other oi was ei at the beginning of the French language. (2) oi from
e or i is a natural outcome of the Latin sound, while oi from o + i comes
from the addition of a Latin i to the Latin o.
Ixx INTRODUCTION.
III. — O in Position.
§ 85. O in Latin position, except in the two cases con-
sidered below (§§ 86, 87), always continues in French: as ossum, os ;
portum, porf ; longum, /ong ; soccum, soc ; porta, porte ; corpus,
corps ; comu, cor ; comua, come ; montem, moni. The same is the
case when o Latin is in French position (§ 88) : as coph(i)num,
coffre ; pon(e)re, pondre ; coni(i)tem, comte ; rot(u)lum, role ; com-
p(u)tum, compte ; hosp(i)teni, hSte ^
§ 86. In certain words this o drops to ou (see § 88) : as cortem *,
O. Fr. cort^ cour ; tomo *, O. Fr. tome, iourne ; torta, O. Fr. torle,
iourte ; coventus (from conventus), O. Fr. covent, convent; costare
(from constare), O. Fr. couster, coUter ; consuere, cosuere, O. Fr.
cousdre, coudre.
This is not the same kind of softening that has changed o into
ou in the following : mollis, O. Fr. mot, mou ; collis, O. Fr. col, cou ;
follis*, O. Yx.fol,fou ; pollicem, O. Fr. poke, pouce ; resolvere, O. Fr.
resoldre, re'soudre ; molere, O. Fr. moldre, vioudre ; vol(u)ta, O. Fr.
volte, voute ; colaphum, O. Fr. colp, coup ; rotulo, O. Fr. rolle, route ;
eorotulo, O. Fr. crolle, croule ; poljrpum, O- Fr. polpe, poulpe : for
these come from the resolution of ol into ou ; for the history of which
see § 157.
§ 87. Before gutturals, and in proparoxyton words ending in ius,
ia, ea, &c., o is ' iotacised,' like all other vowels in the same position
(see §§ 70, 84), and becomes ol in the eleventh century (§ 84) ; this
at a later time becomes oi (§ 84), then ui towards the end of the
middle ages: thus noetem, O. Fr. nolt, null; cocsa (coxa), O. Fr.
coisse, cuisse ; octo, O. Fr. oil, huii ; coq(ue)re, O.Fr. coire, cuire ;
noc(e)re, O.Fr. noire, nuire ; ostium, O.Fr. oistre"^, huitre. Even in
common Latin we find ustium for ostium, ustiarius for ostiarius^.
For the history of French oi, see § 63.
^ Why should dom(i)na, written domna in Merovingian texts, have
taken the strange form dame, while dom(i)nuin became dom in regular
course ?
- As late as Villon we find oistre (whence Engl, oyster) rhyme with
cloistre.
^ This influence has been so strong that possum produced the O. Fr.
pots, now puis, although there is no guttural in the word : the probability
is that the word was treated as if it was pocsum. A remarkable irre-
gularity is to be seen in oc(u)lum, oclum in the fourth century (Appendix
ad Probum). Oclum produced the O. Fr. ucil, then oc'il whence comes
the transformation into (euU, U, as we have seen above, in § 76.
Why then have we a-veugle from aboculum, and not a'vcBil'? From the
form euil, plural euils comes the diphthongal form in ' '
by dropping the /, comes the plural j'^'w*-.
■ THE VOWELS. Ixxi
§ 88. This mutual attraction between o and the gutturals is 'so
strong, that it even affects them when they are separated by another
consonant. In this case the o attracts the guttural, transposes it, and
produces the <?/ sound : thus cognosco, boscum *, becoming cognocso,
bocsum ^, produced connois, now connais ^, and hois. Similarly, when
the letters are divided from one another by a nasal: longe, mon-
(a)clius, canon(i)cus, become logne, moc'nus, canoc'nus, whence
loin, moift, chanoin. It should further be noticed that in the two
cases treated in this paragraph o stops at oi, and does not descend
to ui.
To sum up : —
O in Latin and French position is
I similarly treated.
In Merovingian Latin . . u
r ^ ,
before all consonants (except before gutturals and pro-
gutturals and proparoxy- paroxytons in
tons in ius, &c.) ius, &c.
is strengthened to . o in nth cent. . di
in 1 2th cent. . or
in 1 5th cent. . . ou which 1 ' .
descends to I
(?) eu oi in 15th cent Kt
remains unchanged
if the gutturals are
separated from it by
a consonant.
General resume of the history of the Latin o : —
1. 6 remains unchanged before nasals; becomes a diphthong eu
before all other consonants.
2. 6 remains unchanged before nasals ; becomes oi before gutturals ;
eu or ou before other consonants.
3. o in position (Latin or French) becomes ui before gutturals;
remains unchanged before other consonants.
Thus we see that as the tendency of a is towards e, of e towards
i, so is that of towards u.
History of IT.
§ 89. This vowel was pronounced like French ou by the
Romans : they used to express the French u sound ( = German u
^ Similarly, we find in Inscriptions of the fifth century the form crex-
entem. ( = crecsentem.) for crescentem.
^ For the later change of oi into ai, see § 63.
Ixxii INTRODUCTION.
and Greek v) by the letter y, which in imperial times took (like
Gr. v) the sound of i pure.
Towards the end of the Empire the classical u sound is often
softened into il, which the copyists could not render by y, seeing
that that letter was softened in turn from U to /. Consequently, we
find a great confusion in the written language: u being taken to
represent the new ii sound, it was necessary in order to express
the old classical sound of u, to introduce a new orthographic sign,
ou. This is apparently a diphthong, but in reality has always ex-
pressed a simple sound ^
I.— U.
§ 90. Just as e and i become confounded together in Merovingian
Latin, and are both rendered in French by oi, so 6 and u undergo
the same fortune in French, o becoming ou, as is also the case with u
(except before nasals).
The Latin u sound is represented in Merovingian Latin by o,
a letter which certainly must have differed from pure u, since the
Appendix ad Probum (Keil, 199. 2) has * coluber non colober.'
Thus we find cobetus for cubitus in the Formulae Andega-
venses; jogum for jugum in the MS. of the Theodosian Code.
This sound, certainly intermediate between ou and eu, was usually
represented by u, then by 0, in the hands of the French scribes,
at the beginning of the language ; and it is only at the end of the
twelfth century that we notice this sound dividing in two very
different directions, and passing one way towards ou pure, as cubo,
couve ; ^xxigyxm., joug ; ubi, ou ; lupum, hup; and on the other side
towards eu ^, as gula, gueule ; colubra, conleuvre ; juvenis, jeune ;
supra, O. Fr. seur, now sur. For the softening of eu into u, see
§77^
^ We must take care not to confound ou, as found in sourd, which is
a simple orthographic transcription of the classical Latin u, with ou in cou
(a softened form of O. Fr. cou, originally col, from Lat. collem). In the
former case ou is a simple sound, and has always been such ; in the latter,
ou is the softened form of a strong diphthong, ou in the eleventh century
(§ 157), which also is a resultant of the softening of / into u. In the
eleventh century these two sounds, now altogether confused together,
were completely distinct.
'^ For this change of Merovingian 6 into eu, see § 76.
' The same word has often undergone this double treatment, passing
into a form with eu and another with ou: thus lupum becomes O. Fr. both
leu and loup ; supra both seur (jur) and sor ; juvenis both jeune and jcne.
Modern French has only adopted one of these two forms. This eu from
u must not be confounded with the eu which really comes from 6, and
which has been treated of in § 76. The former was always eu in the
middle ages, but the latter was originally ue.
THE VOWELS.
Ixxiii
§ 91. Before gutturals this parallelism of 6 and u is again met with.
Just as 6 becomes oi (vocem, voix), so i also becomes oi (nucem,
noix ; crucem, croix).
§ 92. There is a parallel phenomenon in proparoxytons in ius,
eus, ia, ea, &c. : o then becomes ui (as podium, puy ?), and li
becomes ui also in cupreum*, cuivre. A strange exception is
ducem, due.
§ 93. So again before nasals : 6 and u become 6», which is
sonorous when followed by a single nasal and a vowel, but is nasal
in all other cases : sumus, sommes ; tuiun, ton ; suum, son.
Classical u
Merovingian . . . . .6
in nth cent u
in 1 2th cent o
before nasals is
dulled to
n I ith cent, o sonorous
n 1 2th cent, o nasal
before gutturals and
proparoxytons in ius,
&c., it is 'iotacised'
1
before other
consonants
1 2th cent, ou in 12th cent. eu.
II.— U.
§ 94. The classical Latin u was at an early date transformed into
a softened u, and the scribes have kept the orthographic sign which
formerly designated ou to express this new sound. This change of
classical u into ii is general: crudum, cru ; cupa, cuve ; culum, cul ;
durum, dur ; scutum, ecu; gluten, glu ; jus, Jus ; luna, lune ;
maturum, miir ; miurum, mur ; mula, mule ; m.uta, mue ^ / nudum,
nu ; nuTbem, wz^^y purum,/z^r/ ^lixmsb, plume ; ^id^o, sue ; securum,
stir ; susum*, sus ; usus, us; and in the suffixes (i): \iva. = ure, as
armatura, armure ; secatura, sciure ; (2) utem = z/, as virtutem,
vertu ; salutem, saluf^ ; (3) utum = z^, as acutura, aigu ; minutum,
menu ; canutum, chenu.
^ In the one word rage mue. The masculine mu from mutum remains
in the diminutive muet.
■^ This is a form reconstructed by the learned : the O. Fr. regular form
was salu.
Ixxiv INTRODUCTION.
§ 95. Before the nasals u becomes nasal: as jejimiim, jmne ;
unum, un ; Melodunum, Melun ; Augustodunum, Autun ; Eburo-
dunum, Embrun : and this sometimes passed into a nasal o, as
Sedunmn, Sion ; Lugdunum, Laon, Lyon.
§ 96. In proparoxyton words ending in -ius, -eus, &c., u or u,
through the reflex action of the i (or e) of the suffix, are transformed
into ui, 01 : as fugio, fuis ; Junius, juin ; pluvia, pluie ; puteus,
puits ; qvl^YAa, coiffe ; Cwcia,, Coi're ; cuneus, com : and this iotacism
is extended even to u when in position : angustia, angoisse ; bustia *,
boite. Diluvium has undergone peculiar treatment : instead of falling
under the influence of the i, and becoming oi, it has turned the i
into a consonant, whence comes diluvjum ; and then the u, being
before two consonants, does not follow the rule given below (§97)
for vowels in position, but becomes il {ddluge). Fleuve from
fluvius, and bute from buteo, are harder to explain : so also is heur
in boiiheur, malheur ; O. Fr. eilr^ ceiir ; Proven9al agur, from Lat.
augurium : here the i has no perceptible influence. (Can there have
been a late Latin form augurum * ?)
To resume the history of u : —
Classical . . . . u
Marovingian . . ii (which stands to classical
I u as ^« does to o)
before consonants before proparoxytons in
I ius, becomes
« I
I in nth cent, ui, oi
before nasals before other
I consonants
in nth cent, u sonorous
I
in 1 2th cent, u nasal
afterwards o nasal
IV.— U in Position.
§ 97. It is an ascertained fact that the being *in position' (i.e.
followed by two or more consonants) protects vowels, and keeps them
unchanged : thus a in position remains as a : arbor, arbre ; e is still
e, as ferrum, fer. In order to preserve itself, u ought to keep the
pure ou sound, and not to drop to u; and this is exactly what
happens. U in position retains its classical purity, but under the new
orthographic sign of ou, as gutta, goutte.
U having, even in Merovingian times, become ii (see above § 94),
THE VOWELS. Ixxv
.IS in purum, pur, the scribes of that time, wishing to shew that u
in position kept its ou sound, were obliged to have recourse to a new
symbol, and took for this purpose the letter o. Thus the Inscriptions
orlEe Empire and Merovingian diplomas are full of such forms as
fornum, mosca, dolcem, comolo, sordum, oltra, orsum, in all of
which o stands for u.
This Merovingian o was transcribed by the French scribes some-
times into «, sometimes into o; for they were as undecided about
the best sign for this new sound as the Merovingian scribes had been :
from the thirteenth century however it settled down definitely into
the oti sign. Thus turrim is turre in Merovingian Latin, tor in Old
French, and now four.
The same continuance of the Latin u in French, under the form
of ou, is to be seen in ampulla, ampoule ; bulla, boule ; betulla, boute ;
bucca, louche ; cub'tus, coude ; cultrum, coutre ; cursus, cours ;
curvum, courbe ; cuppa, coupe; curtum, court; culc'ta-puncta,
courte-pointe ; dulcem, doux ; dubito, doute ; fulgurem, foudre ;
furnum, four ; gutta, goutte ; gluttus *, glout * ^ / diumum, jour ;
luscum, louche; luridum, lourd ; musca, viouche ; ultra, outre;
ursum, ours; utrem, outre; pulv'rem, poudre ; pulsum, pouls ;
pulla, poule ; russum, roux ; sol'dum, sou ; subtus, sous ; satullum,
soul; suf'ero, souffre ; sulphur, sou/re; surdus, sourd; turba, tourbe ;
turbo *, trouve ; turrem, tour ; turnum *, tour ; tussem, toux.
The Old French o has remained in fluctus, _;?(?// multum, mot;
nuptiae, noces ; viburnum, viorne ; ulmum, orme ; ructus, rot;
gurges, gorge.
Hence it can be seen how very generally this rule is applied :
there are but few exceptions to it, and such are (i) in Latin position :
as nullum, nul ; rusticum, rustre ; fustem, fut; justum, juste ;
purgo, purge; dieusq\xe, jusque ; (2) in French position (§66): as
hum'lis, humble; jud'cem, juge ; pul'cem., puce; consuetud'nem,
coutume ; amaritud'nem, amertume. The cause of these exceptions
is not easily to be discovered ; nor is that of the two words burrus,
O. Fr. bidre, now burre, and butyrum, O. Fr. bur re, now beurre.
§ 98. Before a nasal the Merovingian o remains as in French :
as columba, Low Latin colomba, colombe. This was sonorous
at first, in the eleventh century, then nasal (§ 77) from the
twelfth century. Similarly rotundus, rond ; undecim, onze ; unda,
onde ; mundum, monde ; num.erus, nombre ; pumicem., ponce ;
rumpere, rompre ; ciunulum, comble ; fMn.6.\nrL, . fond ; fundus,
fonds; de-unde *, dont ; summa, somme ; grundis *, gronde ; vere-
cundiam, vergogne ; Burgundia, Bourgogne.
§ 99. Before gutturals u in position is iotacised, and becomes ui :
^ Whence comes the derivative glouton.
Ixxvi
INTRODUCTION.
thus finictus, fruit ; buxus ( = bucsus) \ bids ; tructa, truite ; lucere,
hiire ; conducere, conduire ; luota*, O. Fr. luiie (now lutte) : this rule,
however, does not hold good for u before cl, in which case it becomes
oi in very early French, and afterwards oui : as foenuculum. Low
Latin fenuelum, O. Fr. fenoil, now fenouil ; so too inductilis (later
form induclis*), andouille ; ranuda (for ranuncula), grenouille ;
colucula, quenouille ; as well as the Old Fr. pouil, verroutl, genouil
(now pou, verrou, genou, see § 157), from peduclum, veruclum, genu-
clum. Acucula has certainly produced aiguille; but the Old Fr.
was regularly formed, agoille and agouille.
§ 100. When u is followed by a gutturalised nasal (i. e. by nc, ng,
gn) it is iotacised, and becomes oi ; at first sonorous (§ 43) and
strong, and now nasal (§ 44), in the form oin : as punctum, point ;
-pugniun., poing ; jungere, joindre ; ungere, oindre ; -pungerey poindre.
But unquam, onques ; ungula, ongle ; truncus, ironc ; juncus, jonct
have kept the o without becoming iotacised.
To sum up the history of u in position (Latin or French) : —
U in Latin or French position,
I
in Merovingian days . . o
before gutturals
before the other consonants
in nth cent, u
nth cent, oi
sonorous
nth cent, k/, oui
strong
I
before nasals
remains as
nth cent, o
sonorous
1 2th cent. 0/ 12th cent. «/, o«/ 12th cent.
nasal weak nasal
before the others
1 2th cent. ou.
Finally, as a general r^sum^ of the history of the passage of the
Latin u into French : —
Just as i has a tendency to ascend to e, u {ou) has a like tendency
towards 0.
1. 1 remains either as ou pure, or softened to eu (except before
gutturals, when it becomes ui or oi, and before the nasals,
when it remains as 0).
2. u is softened into ii (except when iotacised into ui by the
gutturals).
3. u in Latin or French position remains as ou (except when iota-
cised into ui, oui, oi by the gutturals, or into by the nasals).
* The X has had no influence on O. Fr. jouste from juxta, whence the
derivatives jouster, ajouster (now jouter, ajouter). So the guttural has gone
without leaving a trace from fl.uctus,^o^; ructus *, rot.
THE LATIN DIPHTHONGS. Ixxvii
Y.
§ 101. This letter, an importation from Greece, and intended to
represent Upsilon in the numerous words borrowed by the learned
Latin from the Greek, stands for the exact sound of the modern u.
The Greeks expressed the Latin u sound by ov.
Now this ii sound has been dealt with in three different ways
by the French : either (i) it has retained the ii sound, as
CiCvcpov, zizyj>hMm., Jujuie ; or (2) has risen to the full ou sound:
thus ^vpa-r], TTv^lda, KpvTrrr}, rvfi^os, which were byrsa, pjrxida, crypta,
tumba*, in Latin; then bursa, buxida, crupta, tumba, in Mero-
vingian Latin, and were treated as if formed with an original Latin u,
so making quite regularly the forms dourse (§ 97), M/e (§ 100), gro//e
(§ 97), fomde (§ 97) : or (3) il has followed the descending course,
which is towards z (just as the German Milller becomes English
miller^ and as the Latin maxumus passed first to maxumus, then
to raaximus), as tympanum, timbre ; m.yrtus, O. Fr. mirie (the
modern myrte is a classical reproduction). Similarly myxa became
micsa, and was treated in French as if written with an original i ;
whence come the two regular changes of micsa into misca (§170),
then misca to mesche (§ 126), lastly vieche.
CHAPTER IIL
The Latin Diphthongs.
§ 102. Just as the tendency of the classical Latin was to soften the
primitive diphthongs of the Indo-European language \ so it is the
tendency of the popular Latin to reduce the diphthongs to simple
vowels, which are then treated as such by the French tongue ^.
L— AE.
§ 103. Ae appears about the time of the Gracchi as a degenerate
form of the Old Latin ai (aidem, datai, then aedem, datae). Then
in turn this diphthong, already half-gone, is reduced to the simple e
sound, which must have taken place somewhat early, for Varro
speaks of edus, Mesius, as a popular pronunciation for haedus,
Maesius, and Lucilius ridicules the pronunciation Cecilius, pretor,
instead of Caecilius, praetor. Still, except on the Graffiti, or wall-
' Of the six old Latin diphthongs, ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou, classical Latin
has reduced ei to 1, and ou to u ; has changed ai to ae, and oi into oe ;
and only au and eu have remained untouched.
"^ Common Latin reduced ae and oe to e, au to o, and retained only
eu.
Ixxviii INTRODUCTION.
inscriptions of Pompeii, e for ae is rather rare in Inscriptions down
to the third century ; after that time it becomes common in monuments
and MSS. : as preda, prefectus, presens, Grecus, for praeda, &c.
§ 104. This ae has been treated, when in position, as a primitive
e (see § 65), whence comes regularly praesto, pre'/. When not in
position, the e which comes from ae is treated by the French
language ( i ) sometimes as an e, whence in due form (§ 61) comes ei,
then o/(§63): as balaena, balena, baleine ; praeda, preda, proie ;
blaesus, blesus, blois ; or (2) as a e, whence, in due form
(§56) the diphthong ie : as laeta, leta, lie ; quaerit, querit, quiert ;
saeculum, sec'lum, siecle. But how has ae become eu, ieu, in
hibreu (Old Fr. ibrieii), from Hebraeus ; Matthieu from Matthaeus,
and Old Fr. cieu for caecus; grieu from Graecus ; Dieu^ Old Fr.
Deu, from Deus .? This is a phonetic difficulty, which has as yet
received no answer, and remains very obscure. The same is the
case with the transformation of Judaeus into juif^ in which the d
has become y (as in sitim, soif) : and here the change from ae to
i cannot be explained, unless we suppose that it has taken place in
the same way in which iniquus, concido, illido, requiro, have come
from aequus, caedo, laedo, quaere.
II.— OE.
§ 105. Just as the Old Latin ai became ae in classical times, and
then e in popular Latin, so the archaic Latin oi (foidere, Coilius)
is softened by the time of Plautus into oe (foedere, Coelius), which
becomes e in late imperial times. By the third century a.d. it was
difficult to distinguish between oe and e ^ : whence ae and oe, having
alike become e, have been similarly treated : thus we have oi, foenum,
(§ QQ),/oin ; ei in poena (which was poine in Old French, § 63),
peine ; also e from foemina, femme ; and ie (§ 56) in coelum, tenth
century eel (in St. Eulalia), del.
III.— AU.
§ 106. Just as ai became ae, then e, so au becomes ao, then 0.
This change is to be seen more than once in classical times ; as in
Clodius for Claudius, oUa for aula, plostrum for plaustrum, ex-
plode from plaudo, suffoco from fauces : it becomes common in the
decadence of the Latin language : thus Festus says that in his days
auricula, aurum were pronounced oricula,*orum by country people.
In Merovingian documents the substitution of o for au is general.
^ When once ae and oe had both become e, an inextricable confusion
sprang up in Latin orthography between them ; and thus we find coelum,
poena, coena, wrongly written caelum, paena, caena.
THE LATIN CONSONANTS. Ixxix
§ 107. Au always begins by becoming o in French : as aurum, or ;
clausus, clos ; ausare*, oser ; causa, chose^. This o usually remains
in Modern French^, except when followed by a consonant which
disappears : in this case o becomes ou in Modern French : as in
laudo, O. Fr. he, loue ; compare also aut, ou ; inrauco *, enroue.
It is clear that we may not confound this ou from O. Fr. o, the ou
which comes from the softening of / into u, as in caulis, O. Fr. chol,
chou.
§ 108. Before a guttural (as auca), or in a proparoxyton word
ending in ius, ia, ea, &c., au, after passing into o, follows the rule
which we have noticed as holding invariably in this case (§§ 83, 84),
and is iotacised into oi: as auca, oie^ ; nausea, noise '^ ; gaudium,
joie ; Sabaudia, Savoie : a change which even reaches to such words
as claustrum, cloiti'e * ; adbaubare, aboyer, in which cases there is no
guttural.
CHAPTER IV.
The Latin Consonants.
§ 110. The consonants may be divided into : —
I. Explosive : (i) Labials, p, b (dull p, sonorous b).
(ii) Dentals, t, d (dull t, sonorous d).
(iii) Gutturals, c, g (dull c, sonorous g).
II. Aspirate: h.
III. Semi-vocals : j, v.
IV. Prolonged : (i) Labial, f (ph).
(ii) Dentals, s, x, z.
V. Liquids : r, 1.
VI. Nasals : m, n.
* Learned writers have often reconstructed, and wrongly so, the Old
French forms, with a view to bringing them back to what they conceived
to be the original Latin form : thus the very correct Old Fr. po-vre from
pauper, torel from taurelliim, have been rewritten as pawvre, taureaUf
by the clerks.
2 In one or two cases Modern French has treated this Old Fr. o as if it
had been a primitive Latin o, and has changed it regularly (§ 79) into
eu : thus cauda, paucum., gave the Old Fr. coe, po, softened in Modern
French into queue, peu. The old form coe, or coue, is still to be seen in
the derivative couard.
^ We have seen (§ 84) how often the Latin as it becomes weaker in
French takes two forms : thus paucum, when it lost its guttural influence,
became peu, but in Old French, when it retained some memory of it, it
was pot; and similarly auca loses all trace of the guttural in the O. Fr. oe,
oue, but recovers it again in oie.
* In Old French we have also the more regular form clostre.
Ixxx INTRODUCTION.
I. — Explosive Consonants. P, B.
(i) Labials. Strong P.
§ 110. The Latin initial p always remains unchanged ' : pauper-
tatem, pauvreti ; pacare, payer ; palatium, palais.
§ 111. Medial p drops to b in popular Latin, and this b in its
turn drops to v in French : thus the classical saponem, ripa, crepare,
saporem, become sabonem, riba, crebare, saborem in Merovingian
days : but (as we see, § 113) b drops necessarily to v in French,
and the forms sabonem, riba, crebare, saborem, become savon, rive,
crever, saveur?
P, having such a distance to pass (p to b, b to v) ^, it is easy to see
that when medial it is not syncopated in French ; still there is one
example of this syncope in sil, O. Fr. seii, from sa(p)utus *.
§ 112. Final p disappears : lupum becomes O. Fr. lou, which the
learned from the fifteenth century onwards have rewritten in the form
loup ; while this imitative p still remains mute *.
^ It is no objection to this rule that we have boite from puxida
because the Romans themselves called it buxida, Placidus the grammarian
mentions it as a popular and incorrect pronunciation of the word. —
(Glosses of Placidus, ap. Mai. CI. Auct. vi. 570.) Compare also the
classical Latin buxus from Gr. ttv^os. The change of initial p into b
cannot therefore be attributed here to the French, but to the popular
Latin.
'^ In apicla*, abeille', apotheca, boutique; caepulla, ciboule; capanna,
cabane, it seems at first that the Latin p had been arrested in its descent
at b, without being able to drop to v : but, in fact, these words are not
French (i. e. they have not come straight from the Latin) ; they have been
imported (as may be seen in the Dictionary) some from Provence, others
from Italy : and consequently they do not vitiate the rule laid down. The
same is the case with the word acabit, which is an offensive corruption of
accapitum *.
•^ Such words as vaporem, 'vapeur; stupidus, stupide ; occupare, oc-
cuper ; capitale, capkale, &c., which retain the medial p intact, are all
of learned origin (§ 36). We must, however, except some such forms as
eapitulum, chapitre ; epistola, epitre ; papilionem, papillon ; caponem,
chapon ; apostolus, apotre ; capitellum *, chapiteau , capulare, chapeler,
which are clearly more than half popular, and have yet partly remained
in a learned form, for reasons which one cannot always readily explain.
* As to chef hom caput, the permutation comes in another way. Caput
became capu in common Latin, then the regular permutation (p to b,
b to n)) gave in Merovingian Latin the form cabo ; and this is succeeded by
the French form che've in the tenth century (et preparavit dominus
ederam super caput Jone . . un edre sore sen che've, ' an ivy-bush over
his head'), is a phrase found in a homily on Jonah of the tenth century.
Che've became chef, like bovem, b(Buf; ovum, <£uf; vivum, 'vif see § 142.
Compare aput = ab, a.
EXPLOSIVE DENTALS. Ixxxi
When followed by a (in French e mute), the final p again becomes
a medial, and passes regularly into v : as ripa, rive ; cupa, cuve ;
lupa, louve ; rapa, rave ; sapa, seve ; caepa, cive.
Soft B.
§ 113. The Latin initial b remains unchanged : bucca, louche ;
bovem, bocuf; bene, bien; bonum, bien. The Latin medial b :
when soft it never remains in the middle of a word ^ but drops to
the aspirated v. In some cases the Latin b, having become v, does
not stay there, but treats that v as if it were the original letter ; it
then undergoes the change considered below, § 141, i. e. it disappears :
adbau(b)are * becomes aboyer ; ha(b)enteni, ay ant ; de(b)utus, die;
ha(b)utus*^, O. Fr. eii, eu ; ro(b)iginem, rogne ; su(b)urra, saorre ;
su(b)umbrare, sombrer ; su(b)undare, sonder ; ta(b)anum, taon ;
tu(b)elluin (?), /z^(2«y ^i{b)^x!o■a.Si, viorne ; n.\xbem., nue ; bi(b)utus*^
formerly beii, now bu.
§ 114. Final b disappears : ibi, O. Fr. first iv, then i, Modern Fr.
y; ubi, ou ; debeo, O. Fr. doi, dots; scribo, O. Fr. escrt, icris ;
unless followed by a, in which case it becomes v : feibaf/eve ; proba,
preuve ; entyba, endive'^.
(ii) Dentals. T, D.
Soft T.
§ 115. The Latin t had always a dental sound, except when it
preceded the combined vowels ia, ie, io, iu, in which cases it was
sibilant. This sound having already been considered in § 70, we
need only now deal with the dental t.
§ 116. Initial t always remains: tantum, iant ; tabula, table;
totum, tout ; titionem., tison ; tutare, tuer ; testa, tete.
^ The words which retain the b are all learned, such as probus, probe ;
subitus, JW/^/V, &c. ; and even laborare, /«/^o«r^r; hsibitVLa, babit ; laborem,
labeur; habitare, habiter, which, in spite of their adoption into common
use, are of learned origin. The only exceptions to the rule of p passing
into v, are the popular forms obedire, obe'ir ; abismum *, abtme.
'^ In Western patois we still have the form evut, for eu, marking the
transition from ha(b)utus * to a-vut, then e'vut, eil, eu.
^ Similarly the imperfects in a(b)ani, &c., have formed successively
e've^ eie, oie, ois, ais : lavabam, O. Fr. la've've, then, by dropping the second
•y, lanjeie, lai'oie, la'vois, Iwvais.
* The exception sebum, suif, is not due to the French : Pliny writes
it sevum, so that the change is not from b to^^ but from v tof.
g
Ixxxii INTRODUCTION.
§ 117. Medial t undergoes two successive changes: (i) it becomes
^in Old French, (2) this ^disappears; and then the two vowels thus
brought together are in turn contracted. Thus mutare, vitellum,
imperatorem, aetaticum, became O. Fr. muder, vedal, emperador,
edage. In the twelfth century this medial d begins to be regarded
as if it had been an original Latin d (see § 120), and as such it
disappeared^; and the words became viu-er, ve-el, emper/-ur, i-age,
and these again, towards the close of the middle ages, were con-
tracted into veau, empereur, dge ^. Thus one sees that the medial
Latin t passes through three stages : ist, at the origin of the French
language it passes from the soft to the sonorous state, becoming
d) 2nd, this medial d is dropped; 3rd, the vowels thus brought
together are contracted.
We subjoin the full list of Latin words which contain the medial
t, and have passed through these three stages ^ : —
Abbatissa, abbadissa, abba-esse, abbesse ; aetaticum, aedaticum,
edage, e-age, dge ; so also with armure from armatura ; boyau from
botellus ; cahier from quatemusi ; carreau from quadratellum ;
censter from censitarius ; chaine from catena ; coussin from culcitinus ;
commuer from coinm.utare; crier from quiritare; delayer from dilatare;
de'vouer from devotare ; doloire from dolatoria ; doner, from dotare ;
duchesse from ducatissa * ; dcuyer from scutarius ; e'ternuer from
stemutare ; feu from fatutus * ; grille from craticula ; marier from
maritare ; m^me from metipsimus ; me'tayer from medietarius ; mtiet
from mutettus; noel from natalis; oublier from oblitare; poele
from patella; pouvoir from potere; prairie from prataria; pre'au
from pratellum ; poussif from pnlsativus * ; puer from putere ;
rouelle from rotella ; seau from sitellus ; secouer from succutere ;
soucier from soliicitare ; terroir from territorium ; trier from tritare * ;
ttier from tutare ; vertueux from virtutosus * ; melle from vitella ;
vouer from votare.
§ 118. Final t undergoes like changes with medial t. Before a
^ Such words 2& paladin, salade, cascade, are of foreign origin.
"^ Such a hiatus as may exist between two Latin vowels is not allowed
in French, but is put an end to in one of two ways : i . by contraction,
which combines the two in one; 2. by intercalation, which disjoins them,
and separates them by an interposed consonant. We have just seen con-
traction at work; intercalation may be seen in the following example:
po(t)ere, O. Fr. podir, then po-oir by loss of the d; then, to avoid hiatus,
a -z; is introduced, and it becomes ;5o-i>-o/>, whence Modern Fr. powvoir.
^ Medial t naturally persists in all learned words : natalis, natal ;
nativns, natif; votare, voter. Still it is found also in some popular words :
buticula, bouteille ; catuUiare, chatouiller ; capitaneum, che'vetain ;
quatere (?), catir ; Britannia, Bretagne ; medietatem, moitie ; pietatem,
pttie\ pietantia, pitance; pietosum, piteux ; tota, toute: and it even
becomes tt in beta, bette; blitum, blitte ; carota, carotte ; quietus, quitte.
EXPLOSIVE DENTALS. Ixxxiii
masculine ending in um t disappears, together with the termination,
as pratum, pre; cornutum, cornu. [For further examples see under
the suffixes -atus, § 201 ; -utus, § 201 ; Fr. tatem, § 230 \]
Sonorous D.
§ 119. Initial d always persists: dies, di ; decanus, doyen; donare,
donner ; dextrarius, destrier. Jour, from djurnum ; jusque, from
de-usque, diusque, djusque, fall under a different case ; namely, that
in which d is followed by iu, and the i being consonnified eventually
ejects the d, though it has been retained for centuries in the dj, dz
forms (the form zabolus is found in Latin for diabolus) ; and the
dg sound remains in the Italian g.
§ 120. Medial d remained in French up to about the middle of |
the eleventh century, and is found in French MSS. of that age ; \
in the latter half of that century this d is softened into a sound \
half sibilant, answering to the two English ih sounds ; and this, in j
certain French MSS. written in England, has actually been indicated
by the sign th : thus videre becomes successively vedeir (in the ■
Chanson de Roland, in the eleventh century) ;. veiheir (in the Vie | j
de St.'^ran(r6n,"a twelfth century poem); then vieir in later texts d
(whence successively ve'oir and voir'). So similarly for accahler, \\
cadabulum ; aimanf, adamantem ; asseoir, assedere ; bailler, bada-
culare * ; bayer, badare ; b^nir, benedicere ; chance, cadentla * ;
choir, cadere ; chuie, caduta * ; confier, confidare * ; confiance, con-
fidentia; croyance, cxq^qtsAAs^', cruel, crudelis; creance, credentia ;
cruaut^, crudelitatem ; de'nue\ denudatus ; dech/a?ice, decadentia ;
I dimanche, diedominica ; e'cMance, excadentia * ; enfouir, infodere ;
I envahir, invadere ; fe'al, fidelis ; jiancer, fidentiare * ; fier, fidare ;
I fouir, fodere ; fouiller, fodiculare * ; gldieul, gladiolus ; gravir,
j gradire * ; joyau, gaudiellum ; jouir, gaudere ; joyeux, gaudiosus ;
I juif, judaeus ; louer, laudare ; moelle, medulla ; michant, minus-
I cadentem * ; ;;^(9/(f/z'/, m.edietatem. ; 7;z^^«, medianus; »z^^;z, modiolus ;
i niais, nidacem ; nouer, nodare ; noueux, nodosus ; nettoyer, nitidare ;
j obeir, obedire ; ouir, audire ; parvis, paradisus ; pe'age, pedaticum * ;
j pion, pedonem ; poti, peduclus * ; pr^se'ance, praesidentia ; rangon, re-
j demptionem ; suer, sudare ; suaire, sudarium ; se'oir, sedere ; siance^
'■ sedentia ; irahir, tradere ; trahison, traditionem. ; traitre, traditor.
This rule has no true exceptions : odorem, odeur ; rudis, rude ;
^ We must not forget that the hiatus protects the consonant: see
pascuatieum, />«rfl^f, not pactage. Similarly /<7^ from fatuus. Compare
G. Paris, in the Soc. de linguistique, s. v. fade.
g2
Ixxxiv
INTRODUCTION.
studium, //ude \ are not in point, being learned words, whatever may
be said. As to viduum, vide, this persistence of the d is, on the
contrary, confirmatory of this rule. We have seen (§ 118, note i)
that the dental t remains in like manner before the hiatus of uu,
uo, which protects the preceding consonant : compare fatuus, /ai ;
quatuordecim, quatorze ; batualia, baiaille.
§ 121. Final d is softened into / in very early French, then this
/ ceases to be pronounced, and disappears from MSS. : thus mer-
cedem becomes successively mercii, then merci. A certain number
of words, however, have directly lost the dental without passing
through the / stage in any extant MS. : as fidem, foi ; crudum, cru ;
nudum, nu ; medium, mi ; hodie, hut ; podium, put. Some of
these words have been recast by the learned and the clerks at the
end of the middle ages, so as to get back to the Latin forms : thus
medium, pedem, nodum, nidum, after having become ?nu/,pie, fleu, ni,
were altered to muid, pied, noeud, nid ; but this d is not pronounced.
§ 122. In a few cases there is a transformation of this final d
into / (compare the / under t in sitim, soi/; ablatum *, blei/*) :
similarly feodum makes jfie/; modum, meuf ; Judaeum, juif ; and
such names of places as Marbodus, Marbceuf ; Pambodus, Paim-
boeuf, &c.
Chronological Resume of the History of the Dentals.
Merovingian Latin
Inf
riAL
d
d
d
d
d
Me
t
DIAL
d
Final
t
Masc.
d
d
d
d
d
• d
d
French before loth century .
d
t
After A.D. 1050 ....
th
th
'•
"
From the 1 2th century
"
"
(iii) Gutturals. C, G.
C.
§ 123. The Latin c was hard and pronounced like k, whether
before e and i, or before a, o, and u : thus they said kikero,
fekerunt, kivitatem. In French this hard sound has perished
before e and /, and has been replaced by the sibilant sound (s) ;
before a, 0, and u it keeps its hard sound : it is then well to
distinguish these two cases. Before the groups ia, io, iu, Latin c
^ The true popular form of studere is estovoir.
EXPLOSIVE GUTTURALS. Ixxxv
however did not retain its k sound, but became a tz (juditzium,
contzio, offitzia), whose history we will consider separately.
§ 124. Initial c remains unchanged before o and u : ( i ) before o :
cooperire, couvrir ; coUum, cou ; cornu, cor ; cornua, come ; corpus,
corps : and sometimes this c becomes a ^ : coquus, queux ; cotem,
queux. In such words as coactare *, cacher ; coagulare, cailler, in
which the primitive o has been absorbed by the subsequent vowel,
the rule of continuance of the c is respected, because the Old French
certainly was coacher (the form coailler is to be found in the Oxford
Psalter) ; and the o has been dropped at a later time.
(2) Similarly, c remains before u: cutenna, couenne ; curtem,
court ; eurrere, courir ; culpa, culpe.
Before au, c remains when the au is treated as a simple o ; whence
Cauda, coda, queue ; while causa, caulis, have changed c into ch
{chose, chou).
§ 125. In confiare, gonfler, the c has dropped to g. The same
change is met with in a word whose French origin is doubtful,
cupellettum *, gohelei.
§ 126. Before a, initial c undergoes a very peculiar change : it
passes through the successive aspirated sounds k'h, tk'h, kh, ch ;
whence carrus, char. This change, of which there is not a trace
in Merovingian Latin, was produced early in French: chief [?, found
for caput in the Cantilene de Sainte Eulalie ; still it was long before
it got into general use in writing : as late as the end of the eleventh
century we find camhre and canter in French MSS., whereas it is 1
certain that at that date the pronunciation was chamhre and chanter, j
This change of c into ch is to be met with in : — /
Champ, campus ; chance, cadentia * ; chaine, catena ; chef, caput ;
chair, caro ; chevre, capra ; chien, canis ; chose, causa ; champetre,
campestris ; champion, campionem. * ; chicoree, cichoreum ; chenal,
canalis ; chape, cappa ; chapeau, capellum * ; chapelle, capella * ;
cheptel, capitale ; charnel, carnalis ; charnier, carnarium ; chaire,
cathedra ; chaloir, calere ; chalumeau, calamellus ; chaleur, calorem ;
chamhre, camera ; chancel, cancellus ; chanceler, cancellare * ; chancir,
canutire ; chancre, cancer ; chandelle, candela ; changer, cambiare * ;
chanoine, canonicus ; chanson, cantionem * ; chantre, cantor ; chanter,
cantare; chantier , Q2JcA.Qr\\icai-, chanvre, oaxmsibia; chapeIer,csi]p-alaTe;
chapiteau, capitellum ; chapitre, capitulum ; chapon, caponem * ;
char, carrus ; charger, carricare ; charbon, carbonem ; chardon,
cardonem * ; charrier, carricare ; cherts, caritatem ; charme, carmen ;
charme, carpinus* ; charnier e, cardinaria*; charpeniier, carpentarius;
charpie, carpere * ; charrue, carruca ; chartre, career ; chdsse, capsa ;
chasser, captiare * ; chaste, castus ; chasuble, casibula * ; chat, catus * ;
chdtaigne, castanea ; chateau, castellum ; chignon, catenionem * ;
chdtier, castigare ; chatouiller, catulliare * ; chdtrer, castrare ; chaud,
Ixxxvi INTRODUCTION.
calidus ; chaudi7re, caldaria * ; chauffer, calefacere * ; chaume,
calamus ; chausse, calceus ; chauss/e, calceata * ; chauve, calvum ;
chaux, calcem ; chemin, caminus ; cheminee, caminata * ; chemise,
camisia ; chenal, canalis ; chefiil, canile ; chenille, canicula * ; chenu^
canutus ; cher, carus ; ch^re, cara ; chercher, circare ; chetif, captivus ;
cheval, caballus ; chevaucher, caballicare; chevecier, capicerium * ;
chevitre, capistrum ; cheveu, capillus ; cheville, clavicula ; chevre,
oapra ; chevreuil, capreolus * ; chez, casa ; chien, canis ; chiche^
ciccum ; chiche, cicer ; choir, cadere ; chose, causa ; chou, caulis.
§ 127. In a certain number of cases the initial ch goes rather
• further, and becomes j : capella*, javelle ; caryophyllum, girofle ;
camba, jamhe ; camitem (from cames), jante ; caveloa, geole ; cam-
marus, O. Fr. jamble (a crayfish) ; and perhaps janger from quali-
ficare, cal'f care ?
§128. This ch for ca did not exist in the Picard dialect^;
whence cartie the double forms camp, campagne, casse, which have
entered the French language side by side with the original forms
champ, champagne, chasse, from campus, campania, capsa. To
the same influence may be attributed such irregular forms as cavea,
cage, side by side with caveola, geole ; cable from capulum (sup-
planting the O. Fr. chable) ; cdcher from calcare (supplanting the
O. Fr. chocher, which survives in the names of certain birds, choche-
pierre, choche-poule) ; whence cauchemar, and the diminutive caillou
(from calcullum *, whence O. Fr. caillel, Bartsch, Pasturelles, 1 20) ;
and also cava, cave.
f By the side of these exceptions, due to the influence of certain dia-
I lects of the Langue d'Oil, we must put the words due to the influence
; of the Proven9al; such as capitellum (O. Fr. chadel), cadeau ; capsa,
r caisse (doublet of chdsse) : or due to the influence of the Italian :
such as caput, cap (It, capo); cadentia, cadence (It. cadenza); cal-
care, calquer (It. calcare) ; cavalier, canaille, capitaine, calegon, &c.
§ 129. Medial c. Before a, o, u, medial c passes into g in Mero-
vingian Latin, which has pagare, vogare, logare, instead of pacare,
vocare, locare, &c. This g drops to the semi- vocal j ^, which later
^ See Historical Grammar, p. 21.
^ In acutum, aigu ; acucla*, aiguille; secundum, second, the Latin
c has been exceptionally stopped in its descent at g ; but we cannot put
among such cases the words cicadula, cigale ; fica, ^gue ; vicarium.,
viguier ; flcarium, figuier ; draconem, dragon, which have been borrowed
from the Proven9al cigala, Jiga (O. Fr. form vfdisjie and Jier, see the Oxford
Psalter), viguier, drago (?). Ciconia, cigogyie, is a case, as the Old French
form was soigne. As to locusta, langouste, this nasal form must come from
a form loncusta : the simple form has regularly lost its c, and has
become laouste (found in the Oxford Psalter). Finally cigue from cicuta
is probably a learned word.
THE ASPIRA TED GUTTURAL. Ixxxvii
is again reduced to a simple i : thus braca becomes braga, then
braja, then braie.
When the c is between two vowels it disappears; as amicus, ami.
Soft c becomes s, as avicellus^ oiseau ; placere, plaisir.
a. ^
§ 130. Initial Latin g, whether hard or soft, remains in French : as
gustus, gout; gobionem, goujon; gigantem, gea7tt ; gemere, geindre ;
gemma, gemvie ; gentem, gens {gent). It sometimes is softened
intoy, as in g&uder e, j'oui'r ; gemellus, Jumeau ; galbin\ia,jatme.
§ 131. Medial g also remains : as angustia, angoisse ; cingulum,
sangle ; ungula, ongle ; largus, large. Also it drops to / .• as Ande-
gavi, Anjou.
But g before m, n, r, and d, disappears in French, in whatever
part of the word it occurs, being vocalised into aj/; pigmentum,
piment ; tragere, traire ; legere, lire; m.alignum., malin ; Mag-
dalena, Madeleine ; frigidus (frig'dus), froid. Compare yiyvaa-Koi ,
gnosco, nosco ; gnatus, natus.
§132. Final g remains : as longus, /i?«^/ at&gDMm., e'tang ; pugnus,
poing ; dignus, digne.
II. — The Aspirate. H.
§ 133. The Latin h was not, like the French h, a mute letter,
unpronounced and only written ^ : the Romans originally aspirated
their h with a certain vigour (like the German h) ; for Marius
Victorinus, the grammarian, as late as the fourth century, directs
his countrymen thus : ' Profundo spiritu, anhelis faucibus, exploso
ore fundetur.'
The aspirate, being of all letters the hardest to pronounce and
requiring the most effort, it must necessarily suffer more softening
than any other letter, following the ' law of least action,' § 139. Just ^
as the Latin had abandoned almost all the aspirates of the Indo- |
European primitive languages (aspirates which were retained in the \
Greek, and still more in the Sanscrit), the French has completely I
dropped the Latin aspirated h, and, ceasing to pronounce the letter, *
naturally also gave up writing it ^.
^ What is called the French aspirated h is not really such; it is not
really pronounced, but simply has the power of stopping the elision of the
preceding vowel : as le-heros, me-hdir ; or it stands for a final consonant :
thus Pierre est haissable is pronounced Pierre eh-aissable ; whilst, on the
other hand, the words Pierre est homme and etonne are pronounced alike.
^ It is unnecessary to repeat that we do not trouble ourselves about
learned words such as hom.icida; homicide ; halitare, haliter ; habitare,
babiter ; heros, heros, &c.
Ixxxviii INTRODUCTION.
§ 134. Initial h. Just as the archaic Latin words holus (a bean) ;
hera (a mistress) ; her (a hedgehog), dropped to olus, era, er, in
classical days, so the common Latin suppressed this aspirated h,
and wrote oc, ordeus, eredes, onestus, omo, which are found in
Inscriptions of imperial days for hoc, hordeum, heredes, honestus,
homo. The French language, carrying on this tendency, said avot'r,
on, or, orge, oui, encore, for habere, homo, hora, hordeum., hoc-illud,
hanc-horam. Similarly we have ordure from O. Fr. ord, horridus ;
and Herre, O. Fr. lerre, hedera\ The French language, invariably
suppressing this (to them) useless letter, said also hominem, omme ;
hodie, ui ; herba, erbe ; hereditare, e'riter ; heres, oir ; heri, ier ;
hibemum, iver ; hora, eure, regular forms, afterwards corrupted by
the learned, by the restoration of the mute h ; whence the modern
forms homme, hui, her be, &c., which, therefore, do not really break
the law laid down in § 133, as might appear at first sight.
§135. Medial h. Just as classical Latin suppressed the aspirate
sound in ni(h)il, co(h)ortem, mi(h)i, pre(h)endo, contracting these
words into nil, cortem, prendo, so the French, seeking to abolish
this medial aspirate, employed the two usual methods given above
(§ 117, note 2) — contraction or intercalation: Jo(h)annes is con-
tracted into Je-an, then Jean, pronounced Jan ; but in trai're from
tra(h)ere we have another process ; the aspirate becomes a guttural,
and tra(h)ere becomes tra-g-ere. (For tragere, see traire in the
Dictionary^.) Tragere, regularly contracted into trag're, becomes
traire, by changing gr to ir (§ 131). The same case is found in
medieval Latin : vehere becomes vegere, to soften the hiatus ; and
similarly we have grugem for gruem.
This suppression of the aspirated h explains to us why th, ph, ch,
which were learned importations of Latin savants for the Greek
6, 0, X, have been treated in French as if they were /, J, c.
III. — The Semi- Vocals. J, V.
§ 136. Two consonants (j, v) bear this name : they had in Latin a
sound which floated between that of a vowel and that of a consonant ;
the Latin j approaching to i, the Latin v to ou. From this double
tendency of these two Latin letters we get in French two very distinct
ways of treating these semi-vocals, according as they incline towards
the French consonantal or the French vowel state. In the first case,
the Latin v and j take in French the form of two well-marked
^ Ortolan comes from hortulanus *, through the Provengal.
2 The form tragere explains how trahentem has produced trayant,
where the y represents the usual vocalisation (§ 131) of the g of tra-
gentem.
SEMI-VOCAL CONSONANTS. Ixxxix
consonants v ^ and j (which is a soft g) : thus avena ^ became avoine,
and junicem ^, ge'nisse. In the second case, the Latin j and v, be-
coming real vowels, are represented by i and ou : hence Troja
becomes Troie (an i which finally disappears in such words as
je-junum, Je-Un, then jetm) : and the v = otc at last disappears and
leaves no trace ; as pa-vonem, pa-wonem, pa-ou-on, pa-on. This,
however, does not hold good of initial v, which remains in French.
We must now inquire how these changes have taken place.
J.
§ 137. This letter, pronounced i-i by the Latins, who said i-iuvenis,
mai-ior, for juvenis, major *, soon underwent two distinct changes :
I. the one transforming this Latin i-i, in order to mark it better,
into d-i, as in ma-di-us, found in medieval Latin ^, for ma-i-us ;
or di-acere for jacere. 2. But when once the j has got behind
a d, how does it consonify itself? It takes a dj sound, diacere
= djacere, a sound represented in modern Italian by gi (pronounced
dgi), as m. giacere. This compound dgi sound loses its dental, and
is then reduced to the soft g or / sound (as pronounced by the
French). This, then, is the scale of sounds : —
J ( = i-i) -♦ di-i — dj-i — gi — j (French) : i-iugum -^ di-iugum —
dj-iugum — giugum, joug.
Helped by these preliminary distinctions, we may study the history
of the Latin semi-vocal j into French.
§ 138. Initial j becomes a consonant, and is sounded as ge : jam,
ja ; jaculare, jaillir ; Januarius, Janvier ; jactare, Jeter ; jocus,
Jeu ; Jovis-dies, jeudi ; jejunus, jeun ; jungere, joindre ; juncus,
jonc ; joc\xi.8iri,jongkr ; jocsiri, jouer ; jugvim, j'oug ; j-axtare, j'oufer ;
juventia, jouvence ; jocale, joyou ; Judaeus, juif; judicare, jtiger ;
inveneva, jhine ; Junius, Jm'n ; juYnentura, j'umenf ; jurare, Jurer ;
jus, JUS ; Justus, jusie : a change also often expressed by soft g,
which is the same letter as j in French : hence jacere, ge'sir ;
junicem, g^nisse ; juniperum, gemevre.
^ The French «!; is a labial consonant, degenerated from the Latin b,
just as the French y, or soft g, is a degenerated form of the guttural ch. (?)
2 Pronounced a-ou-ena at Rome.
^ Pronounced i-iunicem at Rome.
* Cicero, Quinctilian tells us, was accustomed to write this medial j ,
as i. ' Sciat enim Ciceroni placuisse aiio, Maiiamque, geminata i |
scribere.' Instit. Orat. i. 4, 11. We find liulius for Julius in Inscriptions ^
under the Empire. Those Inscriptions and MSS. which write Hiesu, |
Hiaspidis, Hiericho, Hieremie, Trahiani, for Jesu, Jaspidis, Jericho, j
Jeremias, Trajani, have accurately expressed this pronunciation. Com- I
pare with this pronunciation that of the English j/^'^r, or German Jabr.
^ For examples, see under Mai in the Dictionary.
xc INTRODUCTION.
§ 139. Medial j retains the Latin i sound, and disappears when
it immediately precedes the tonic vowel : jejunium., Je-unyjhm ; when,
on the other hand, it follows the tonic vowel, it remains as i : Troja,
Troie ; raja, raie ; boja, O. Fr. boie^ bouie ; majus, mai ; major,
maire ; bajiilare (?), bailler ; pejor, /^r*? / pejus, /w^.
V.
§ 140. Initial v always continues, except in the important case
of V = gu, as in Vasconia, Guascogne, Gascogne ; -sriscyxva^gui ; vadum,
gti/; veapa,, guepe ; vipera, gm'vre. Thus vajLwon, vain ; vinum, z'm/
vectura, voiture ; vulturius, vautour ; virtutem, vertu ; vaeca, vache.
In a few cases v is strengthened into either/^ as vicem, fois ; or into
^, as vervecem, brebi's ; vaccalarius, bachelier ; vervecarius, berger ;
vettonica, be bine ; Vesontionem, Besangon ; but this rise from v
to b is not the work of the French language ; it was done in the
Latin. Petronius writes berbecem, Pliny bettonica: in the fifth
century we find berbecarius; in a tenth century MS. we have
baccalarius.
§ 141. Medial v. We know that the Latin v was not pronounced
like the French v, but rather like the English w (or like the French ou
sound) ^. This sound, which was not a pure consonant like the
French Vy nor a pure vowel like the French u, but lay between the two,
J has properly been called semivocal. It has undergone two different
* methods of treatment in French, according to its approximation to
the consonantal or to the vowel condition : if the former, it has
produced the French v, as in lavare, laver .; levare, lever ; privare,
priver ; novellum, nouveau ; lixivia, lessive ; viventem, vivani ;
November, novembre ; gingiva, gencive. This, however, is not
universal : on the contrary, when the semivocal inclines towards the
vowel sound, it disappears in French: thus pavonem (pronounced
^ The word aider^ very irregularly formed from adjutare, may here
be considered. Adjutare at a very early period became ajutare, as the
Inscriptions shew us (see Dictionary, s. v. aider, where also the details
of these changes are worked out). Ajutare soon became aj'tare, whence
aider.
. ^ This rise from v to b, rare in the Latin also, especially before the
fourth century, became the rule in certain patois of the Romance lan-
guages; as the Neapolitan in the East, the Gascon in the West. In
Gascony the pronunciation has always been bos from vos ; boide from
volere *, benir from venire, &c. ; a rule noticed by Scaliger, who founded
on it the neat and well-known epigram —
'Non temere antiquas mutat Vasconia voces,
Cui nihil est aliud vivere quam bibere.'
It is curious that this same pun occurs, more than a thousand years
before Scaliger, on a Roman tomb : ' Dum vixi bibi libenter ; bibite vos
qui vivite.' — Heuzer, Or. 6674.
SEMI-VOCAL CONSONANTS. • ; . , , , ,xc^
pa-ou-nem in Rome) soon became pa-onem, whence p'tuM";' s\mihfif
avunculus (pronounced a-ou-unculus) soon was contracted to
a-uneulus ; the Latin poets treat it as a trisyllabic word ; it is
also to be found as aunculus in several Inscriptions. Thus, too,
we find in Inscriptions noember for no-v-ember, juentutem for
ju-v-entutem. This loss of the v is to be found also in classical
Latin, as in bourn for bovum * ; audii for audivi ; redii for redivi * ;
amarunt for amaerunt*, for amaverunt; pluere for pluvere*.
The Appendix Probi speaks of ais for avis ; rius for rivus ^. This
loss of v^ also takes place in French : as in pavonem, paon; pavorem,
peur; aviolus *, aieul ; vivenda, viande; clavare, doner; avunculus,
oncle ; ovicla, ouaille ; pluvia, pluie ; caveola, geole ; uvetta *, luetle ;
obliviosus, oublieux.
§ 142. Final v is always hardened into f at the end of words :
this phenomenon, which is opposed to the law stated below § 167, is
easily explained. Notice that most of the popular words which
change v into f are monosyllabic : bovem, bcEuf ; brevem, href;
cervum, cerf ; captivum, che'tif ; clavem^, clef; nativum, nmf ;
navem, nef; nervum, nerf; novus, neu ; novum, neuf; ovum, ceuf ;
pulsativum *, poussf ; salvum, saif ; servum, serf ; sevum, suf;
vivum, vf; ^ejveva., grief ; augivum *, ogif*; restivum*, re'ttf ;
vidvum, veuf Now we know that monosyllables shew a marked
desire to strengthen themselves, either at the beginning by aspiration
or at the end, by introducing a strong consonant as a bulwark
against phonetic decay. Besides, without insisting on this fact, the
true cause of the change from v to yiies in the tendency which leads
the French language to replace soft consonants at the end of words
by strong ones, in order to give greater support to the voice. For
this reason the soft d and g in this position are replaced in pro-
nunciation by the strong / and c, as in sang et eau, grand homme,
where sa?tg is pronounced sajic, and grand, grant * ; whence it follows
that the final v is necessarily strengthened into y'^. When v is not
^ ' Rivus non rius, avis non ais.' — App. Probi.
^ In Andegavi, Pictavi, clavus, pronounced by the Romans Ande-
ga-ou-i, Picta-ou-i, cla-ou-is, &c., the Latin v (ou) joins the preceding
a, and forms the diphthong aou; which, following the law of trans-
formation into French (au, then o, lastly ou), has formed the three words
Anjou, Poitou, clou.
^ Why is the /of clef mnte (whence the orthography cle) while it remains
sonorous in the other words ?
* Why then does the strong s form an exception, being softened into
a z, at the end of words, as in nous aimons, aux enfants, che'vaux admirables,
&c., where nous, aux, che'vaux, are pronounced nou-%, au-'z, chenjau-z ?
^ This tendency is so strong that it even transforms words of learned
origin, which also change final v into /, as in activus, actif; passivus,
passif; nativus, natif; relativus, relatif.
xcii INTRODUCTION.
iincrl, there- is no longer any reason for this strengthening process,
and it remains unchanged according to § 140. This is the reason
why the feminine of adjectives in -z/'is -we ; and why we have bovem,
dcvuf, but bovarius, houvier ; navem, nef, but navile, navire; servum,
serf, but servire, servir ; salvum, sauf but salvare, sauver ; nativum,
naif but nativitatem, naivete. The same rule enables us to explain
the relation between the primitive chef and the derivatives chevetj
achever, and between such words as ^rf/'and brevet, relief diXid. relever.
IV. Prolonged.
(i) Labial. F.
§ 143. Initial f remains : fortem, fort ; focum, feu ; fata, fe'e ;
fabula, fable ; foras, fors, which last word became hors at an early
date, just as O. Fr. faras (a troop of stallions) and fardes (clothes ?)
became haras and hardes. The Latin f being only one degree
stronger than h, we find this same exchange between the archaic
Latin fostis, fircum, folus, and the classical hostis, hircum, (olus?).
§ 144. Medial f invariably remains : refutiare, refuser ; defendere,
defefidre, &c., with'the one exception of scrofella *, ^crouelle.
§ 145. Final f remains ; tufus, iuf; but, if followed by a mute
a, it becomes v, as genovefa, genevieve.
§ 146. By the side of the spirant f the Latin had received from
the Greek, and has passed on to the French, another aspirate 0,
whose history must now be considered.
The Greek 0, ph (wrongly pronounced by us as an/"), had a very
/ distinct sound of its own, differing from the Latin f Quinctilian and
i Priscian tell us that to pronounce f we must use a stronger aspiration
I than we should with <^, and that in so doing the lower lip should not
\ touch the upper row of teeth. The was pronounced like the
English ph in shepherd. A p thus aspirated necessarily dropped down
to the common p when used by persons whose ears were not fine
enough to recognise so slight a distinction ; and thus at Rome, whilst
the upper classes, in transferring ^ made it first ph, afterwards
f, the common people made it a p, thus suppressing its delicate
aspirate: as in af^vn], which has produced the double Latin form,
the learned aphya, and the popular apua. Thus, whilst the learned
called the dfx(popevs amphora, and the arpocpr} stropha, the people
made them ampora and stropa, as the Appendix Probi (in the time
of Nero) tells us. Probus blames the vulgar pronunciation 'stropha non
stropa, amphora non ampora.' This vulgar pronunciation remains
in a few French words : thus rropcfivpa produced the popular Latin
purpura, whence pourpre ; KoKa^o^ has both forms, learned colaphus,
PROLONGED CONSONANTS. xciii
and vulgar colapus, so frequent in Merovingian documents, Avhence
O.Yv.colp, now coup^ : (f)a\ayyai, in classical Latin phalangae, popular
Latin palangae, has preserved the latter form in the French palan,
palafique. On the other hand, the ph used by the Latin literati to
represent 4> in the words they borrowed from the Greek (as 4)i\o(ro(}ila,
philosophia), soon, in spite of the outcries of the grammarians, was
confounded with the Latin f. Side by side with phaselus, phlegma,
sulphur, tophus, sylphi, phalangae, &c., we find, at an early date,
the forms faselus, flegma, sulfur, tofus, sylfi, falangae, &c. This
change of ph into f goes on in French in popular words ^ : as
phantasma,y^«/^;^^^/ -phi^la, Jiole ; ■p'ha.sia.nuSy/'aiscm; elephantum,
olifant ; graphium, greffe^. Similarly orphaninus * produced the
O. Fr. orfenin, whence orfelin, which the learned of the middle ages
have recast in the form orphelin, believing that they were thereby
approaching nearer to the original Latin form.
(ii) Dentals. S, X, Z.
S.
§147. Initial s, if followed by a vowel, remains: solus, seul ;
subtus, sous; sella, selle ; ^^xv6^x^, sourd. But st becomes est; sp,
esp ; sc, esc, the prefixed e tending to render the pronunciation more
easy : thus we have stare, O. Fr. ester ; scribere, O. Fr. escrire ;
sperare, esperer ; and this s is not uncommonly absorbed, its place
being marked by the acute accent on the initial e : as escrire, e'crire ;
statum, estat, etat.
§ 148. Medial s remains : as cerasus, cerise ; quassare, casser.
But sc'r drops the s, as is seen in crescere, croitre ; pascere, paitre ;
cognoscere, connaitre.
§149. Final s sometimes remains: ursus, ours; subtus, sous;
minus, moins. Or it becomes z, as casa, chez ; nasus, nez ; adsatis,
assez. Or x, as duos, deux ; tussis, toux ; otiosus, oiseux ; sponsus,
e'poux,
^ Sometimes a p sprung from a is treated in French as if it were an
original p : thus the Greek (}.^v^ov became ziziphus, with a popular form
zizupus, which then underwent the regular change of p into b (§ 111),
whence zizubus, whence the ill-formed y«y«^(f.
^ It remains as ■ph in learned words: philosophia, philosophie • pha-
langeus, phalange; phoebus, phebus ; except in some scientific terms,
introduced somewhat early (as we have seen in § 146), which have changed
ph into f, as (^avTaty'ia^ fantaisie ; (pauTaariKos, fantastique ; phrenesis,
frenesie.
^ There are a few of these double consonants which have a like origin ;
as cophinus, common Latin co£bius, coffre.
INTRODUCTION.
X.
§ 150. Medial x sometimes remains : as sexaginta, soixanie. Or
it becomes ss : as examen, essairn ; laxare, laisser ; coxa, cutsse ;
axilla, ai'sselle.
§ 151. Final x remains : sex, six ; luxum, luxe.
Z.
§ 152. Initial z remains : zelum, zeie ; but zelosus becomes ya^^Jtr.
V. — Liquids. R, L.
R.
§ 153. Initial r remains : regnum, regne ; rupta, route ; regem,
roi ; ripa, rive.
§ 154. Medial r remains : soricem, souris ; carmen, charme. It also
becomes / in some few cases : as paraveredus, palefroi. It is some-
times dropped before j, as dorsum,, dos ; persica, O. Fr. pesche, p^che.
§155. Final r remains usually: as audire, ouir ; carrus, char ;
but in some cases it becomes /, as altare, autel ; cribrum, crible.
§156. Initial 1 remains: littera, letire ; lingua, langue ; legem,
hi. It also becomes r, a change which dates back to Merovingian
days : lusciniola, rossig?ioL Also n, as libella, niveau.
§ 157. Medial 1 remains : as aquila, aigle ; filius, fils ; circulus,
cercle. There is also the change into n, as is seen in posterula*
(O. Fr. posterle, posterne), poterne ; margula (O. Fr. marie), marne.
Also into r, as ulmus, orne ; cartula, chartre ; capitulum, chapitre.
It should be noticed that this 1 is often softened into u in the
combinations ol, ul preceding a consonant: as collem, cou ; aus-
cultare, /couter ; pulverem, poudre ; sulphur, sou/re; col'phus,
coup. This process took place in French times.
§158. Final 1 remains in solus, seul ; sal, sel ; supercilium,
sourcil ; mille, mil; mel, miel.
VI.— Nasals. M, N.
M.
§150. Initial m remains: mare, mer ; m.B.mxa, main ; mille, mil.
It also becomes n, as mappa, nappe ; matta, natte.
§ 160. Medial m remains : camera, chafnbre ; computare, compter ;
RULE OF PERMUTATIONS. xcv
or it becomes n, as semita, senie ; computare, confer ; simius
(simiMB), singe ; ^vixixvnn, prin'm p7'intemps . Also in the double mn
the m becomes n, as colunina, colonne.
§ 161. Final m remains : dama, daim; nomen, nom ; faxaeva^/ai'm.
Also it becomes n, as rem, rien ; meum, taxim, suum, ?7ion, ton, son.
§ 162. Initial n remains : nomen, nom ; non, non ; nos, ' nous ;
nasum, nez.
§163. Medial n remains: as ruina, ruine ; mentiri, mentir ;
mentum, menfon. Also it becomes m, as nominare, nommer ; car-
■^vmxs,, charme ; hominem, homme. Also/.- orphaninus *, orphelin ;
Panorm.us, Palerme ; Bononia, BologJte. Also r : ordinem, ordre ;
diaconus, diaa'e ; Londinum., Londres. N also disappears in some
cases before the origin of the French language, as in pagensis,
pagesis *, pais, pays.
§ 164. Final n remains : non, non ; sonus, son ; bonus, bon. Or
it disappears, as nomen, ?iom.
PART II.
THE PRINCIPLES WHICH RULE THE PERMUTATIONS
OF LANGUAGE.
§ 165. We may thus sum up the results of our inquiry by statmg
the Laws on which the change of the Latin letters into French rests ;
and these (using the language of natural history) we may call the
laws of least action, and of transition.
§ 166. I. Law of Least Action \ — It is a characteristic of every
human effort to try to exert itself with the least action, that is, with
the smallest possible expenditure of energy. Language follows this
law, and its successive transformations are caused by the endeavour
to diminish this effort, and by the desire of reaching a more easy
pronunciation. This, combined with the structure of the vocal
apparatus, gives us the true cause of these changes of language.
^ In his admirable Grammaire comparee du Sanskrit, du Grec, et du Latin,
M. Baudry has shewn the influence of these two principles on the formation
of ancient languages. I hope to shew that they may be further confirmed
by the history of the French language.
xcvi INTRODUCTION.
§ 167. This need of greater ease in pronunciation shews itself in the
history of the French language, by the general weakening of the Latin
letters : thus the c and g, pronounced hard by the Romans before e
and i \ as fekerunt, kivitatem, guemellus, guibba (fecerunt, civi-
tatem, gemellus, gibba) have become soft in French, the hard o
passing into the f sound, the hard g into they sound, so that where
the Latins said kedere, aguere, the French say ceder, agir. Similarly
the Latin p is softened into v, ripa, crepare, saponem, becoming
rive^ crever, savon : in some cases the weakening is so great that the
Latin letter altogether disappears; as crudelis passes into crue/,
sudare into siier, obedire into od/tr.
§ 168. In other cases, the letters in contact being dissimilar, the
French language assimilates them, to make the pronunciation easier ;
thus it changes dr into rr ; adripare, arriver ; quadratum, carre ;
similarly tr is softened into rr, as putrere, pourrir ; latronem, larron.
Here moreover, as in most cases, the French only follows the example
of the Latin itself, whose tendency towards assimilation was strongly
developed ; thus the Romans said arridere for adridere, arrogantem
for adrogantem, &c. From this regular progress of languages towards
an easier pronunciation, we may conclude at once that languages are
ever descending, never climbing, the scales of sounds : thus tr is
softened into rr ; rr is never hardened into tr ; latronem may des-
cend into larron, but parricidium never ascends in French to patri-
cide ; either it must remain as it is, parricide, or grow softer still by
simplifying the rr into r.
§ 169. Another phenomenon, the correlative of this assimilation of
letters, and also springing from the desire of ease in pronunciation,
is the separation or differentiation of similar letters, so as to render
their emission from the mouth easier. If a Latin word has two
r's, in French it will be softened by changing the one r into /, as
cribrum, crible : thus the Latin parafredus becomes palefroi, not
pare/roi] peregrinus becomes pelerin, not pereri?t. So too, if there
are two I's, the French changes one into r; lusciniola becomes
rossignol, not lossignol. This process has received the name of dis~
similation. This balancing of letters and effort after the vocal
equilibrium were not unknown to the Latins, who, to avoid the
two r's, said ruralis, muralis, instead of ruraris, m.uraris : to avoid
the two /'s, they said epularis, stellaris, instead of epulalis, stellalis^.
^ See the word agencer in the Dictionary.
^ In a word, the suffixes aris, alls, being alike in origin and meaning,
the Romans preferred aris, when the word had already an 1 in it (as
stellaris, from stella), and alis, if the word had an r in it (ruralis,
from ruris). See Baudry, Grammaire comparee du Sanskrit, du Grec,
et du Latin, p. loi.
EXCEPTIONS TO PHONETICS. xcvii
§ 170. Together with this ' dissimilation/ which seeks to avoid the
disagreeable repetition of the same letter, we must notice another
process, 'metathesis,' the transposition or displacement of a con-
sonant, to facilitate pronunciation: thus, formaticum, turbare,
paupertatem, at first became formage, iourver, pauverie, as may be
seen in old French texts; these words afterwards underwent the
j displacement of the r, and h&C2imQ/romage, irouver, pauvrete.
§ 171. II. Law of Transition. — The law of least action shews
us the cause of the transformations of language, and of the per-
mutation of letters; that of transition will teach us the conditions
of these changes, and their course. ' Permutation moves on step
by step, and never more than one step at a time. A letter does
not at a bound change its order, degree, or family; it can only
make one of these changes at once ^' Thus, to resume the study of
the word putrere, given above, the classical putrere did not turn at
once into the French pourrir ; it passed in the Merovingian Latin
into the forms putrire, pudrire, and in Old French through the
successive ioiras podrir, porrir, whence pourrir : the tr had to pass
the intermediate dr before it became rr. In like manner the Dic-
tionary will present to us, so far as it is possible to write it, the
history of every letter, and will connect the Latin with the French by
the intermediate links of medieval Latin, and the Old French.
PART III.
\
EXCEPTIONS TO PHONETICS. EFFECT OF CORRUPTION
ON THE FORMATION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.
§ 172. Though the laws of Phonetics rule with precision almost all
the words in the French language, there are still a few which seem, as
far as we know, to be refractory, and to refuse to be classified under
established heads: just as in natural history there are some beings
which have not yet found their proper place under the divisions of
science.
These exceptions to the rules of Phonetics have a double cause : or
rather, the infraction of the rules is only apparent, and is due to in-
fluences which we are as yet unacquainted with, and to secondary laws
^ F- Baudry, Grammaire compare e du Sanskrit, du Grec, et du Latin,
p. 83.
h
xcviii INTRODUCTION.
which limit or modify the primary ones ; or these infractions of law
are the result of corruption. Words thus corrupted cannot be used
as arguments to throw doubt on the existence of the laws of lan-
guage and their firm establishment : for, as M. Littrd says, * it is the
general and positive rules which enable us to affirm that there is an
error even where we do not know the circumstances or the conditions
of the error ; they enable us to divide the whole into the regular and
correct part, and the part altered and mutilated by the inevitable faults
of time and of mankind.'
And besides, in many cases the corruption is only apparent, not
real, or if it does exist, it is not the French language that is to blame :
thus ecouter (Old French escouter, escolter, originally esculter) is a very
irregular derivation from the classical Latin auscultare, for the Latin
au never becomes e in French, and if the word had been regularly
formed, it would have been oscouter, not escouter, as the Latin au
habitually becomes o (aurum, or; pausare, poser, &c.). Now here to
all appearance is a flagrant exception, and Phonetics seem to be at
fault. But not so: Phonetics are blameless, for we know from
Flavins Caper that in the third century men said, not auscultare, but
ascultare, whence, according to rule, comes the form escouter, as a
becomes e (patrem, pere ; pratum, pre'; gratum, gr^ ; &c.). Thus
in this case the corruption dates back to the popular Latin, and the
French language has nothing to do with it.
The same is the case when the French language seems to violate
the Latin accent, in such words as encre from encaustum. / persil from
petroselinum, borrowed by the Romans from the Greek (eyfcauoToi/,
nerpocreXLuov). Here the French retains the original Greek accent, pre-
served by the Latins in these borrowed words. In souris, seigle, mordre,
foie, fin, faite, from soricem, secdle, mord^re, ficatum, finitus,
fastigium, the accent had already been displaced in vulgar Latin,
which said soricem, s6cale, mordere, ficatum, finitus, fastigium.
But beside these apparent infractions of the laws of Phonetics,
there are also real exceptions, caused by corruption or chance, —
cases of Latin words whose passage into French is governed by no
known laws, and which seem to us to be painful discords in the
harmonious unity of the language. These errors are man's mark left
on the vocabulary, the arbitrary element in the formation of the
French tongue. If we compare with their Latin originals the words ^^r-
mandree, cham.aedrys ; amidon, am.yluin^ ; camomille, chamaemelum;
ancolie, aquilegia; erable, acer arbor; e'chalotie, Ascalonicum; estragon,
draconem; regime, Ucim.Titm\ girofle, caryophyllum; marjolaine, ama-
racana*, we shall find ourselves face to face with the worst corruptions
^ Here the corruption is older than the French language ; amidum
for amylum is found in a Latin document of the ninth century.
EXCEPTIONS TO PHONETICS. xcix
in the language : let us note at the same time that almost all these
words indicate medicinal plants, and have come down to us through
herbalists and apothecaries. Nor is it astonishing that a long special
use has deformed and corrupted such words ; for the people torture
learned words so as to give them a sense of some kind — thus one
may any day hear the common folk ask for de Veau d'anon for lauda-
num, and the like. To this class also belongs boutique, from apotheca,
one of the most striking instances of corruption. Apotheca would
regularly have produced aboutaie, as the Latin initial a never drops out
in French, and it is contrary to rule for the Latin c between, two
vowels to become q in French at the end of a word ; in such a posi-
tion the Latin c always disappears (baca, haie ; braca, braie ; ebriaca,
ivraie) ; so that, like theca, iaie, apotheca ought to have become
aboutaie ^. If we add to this list certain other words ^, we shall have
the full catalogue of all forms due to chance or inexplicable disturb-
ance : it will be seen how very small their sum total is, compared with
the whole French language. Still, it is most important for us to be
able to ascertain the truth. From the days of St. Augustine, who said ^
that the explanation of words depends on the fancy of each person who ■ I
tries them, and who likened it to the interpreting of dreams, down to
Voltaire, who believed that chance or corruption were the sole causes
of the revolutions of language, human speech has ever been regarded
as the product of the arbitrary caprice of men. But modern science
has shewn that languages are not the work of chance, but a natural
and organic growth, of which man is not the author, but the instru-
ment. Philology has narrowed and limited the part played by caprice
and corruption in the formation of languages, without utterly annihi-
lating it.
^ Aboutaie is not the final form. We know on one hand that the Latin p
does not stop at b, but drops down to t : on the other hand we know that
t between two vowels always drops out in French ; so that aboutaie would
become avoutaie^ and finally a'vouaie, the last regular contraction of
apotheca.
^ Adamantem, diamant; emendare, amender ; amygdale, amande ;
tremere, craindre ; carbunculus, escarboucle ; scintilla, etincelle ; sarco-
phagus, cercueil • fracticium, friche\ lampetra, lamproie ; imicomu,
Ucorne ; umbilicus, nombril. As to the words lendemain, loriot, lierre,
which in Old French were rightly spelt endemain, oriot, terre (see the
Dictionary for these words), they must not be reckoned as corruptions
of the Latin word, but of the French.
h2
INTRODUCTION.
PART IV.
DERIVATION.
§ 173. Before we enter into necessary details in dealing with deriva-
tion, under tlie three heads of substantive, adjective, and verb, we must
first forewarn our reader that every suffix ought always to be regarded
from three points of view ; — with reference to its origin, form, and
accentuation.
§ 174. I. Origin. — Suffixes maybe of Latin origin (as pfemz'^r from
primarius), or of French origin, that is, formed on the model of
Latin suffixes, as encrzVr from encre), but having no correspon-
dent Latin original.
§ 175. 2. Form. — We must carefully distinguish suffixes of learned
formation from those of popular origin ; i. e. such derivatives as
prinWr^, sdcuWr^, schokzW, which come from the learned, from
such as prem?'<?r (primarius), "SjioxMer (secularis), ^colz'<?r (scholaris),
which have been formed by the common people.
§ 176. 3. Accentuation. — Here the Latin suffixes may be put under
two heads : a. the accented, whose penultimate is long, as mort^lis,
humanus, vulgaris ; and, /3. the unaccented or atonic, whose penul-
timate is short; as dsinus, porticus, mobilis.
§ 177. Accented Latin suffixes are retained in the French, as mortely
humain, vulgaire. The language having got possession of these
suffixes, -el, -ain, -aire, presently uses them to form new derivatives,
applying them to words which had no corresponding suffixes in
Latin: by such additions have been formed such words as vis-uel^
loini-ain, visionn-aire, derivatives created at first hand by the French
language.
§ 178. Atonic Latin suffixes, ds-inus, port-icus, jud-icem, all
perish as they pass into French by a natural consequence of the
law of accentuation: thus dsinus gives us dne ; port-icus, pore he ;
j'dd-^cem^juge. After losing the atonic i these suffixes had no strength
left in them for the production of new derivatives. What, in fact,
does the suffix -k in gre-te (gracilis) ; humb-le (humilis) ; douib-h
(ductilis), represent to the common ear ? Who would believe that
these three French words are formed by means of the same suffix,
if he had not the Latin words before him ? While the Latin -ilis
is very fruitful, the French -le is but a sterile termination. Similarly,
it may be seen by such examples as diab-le (diabolus) ; meub-le
(mobilis) ; peup-le (populus), that the three Latin suffixes, -olus, -ilis,
-lilus, are uniformly merged in the French -le ; a fact which indicates
DERIVATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. cr
the indistinctness of their sound on the popular ear, owing to the
dropping of the atonic penultimate vowel. It was not till several
centuries after the birth of the French language that the learned, -
not understanding the proper function of accent in the formation i
of terminations, foolishly followed the Latin form, imposing on it /
a false accent, displacing the true accent. Then sprang up words j
like portique (porticus) ; mobile (mobilis) ; fragile (fragilis) ; words *
opposed to the genius of the French language, barbarous words,
neither Latin nor French, defying the laws of accent of both
languages. In a word, of these two classes of suffixes, the former,
the accented, are alone strong enough to bear any development in
French ; the others, the atonic, have fallen dead, without producing
a single new derivative. This is the principle which will form the
basis of our study of suffixes.
SECTION 1.
Derivation of Substantives.
Latin substantives, adjectives, verbs, prepositions ^, have produced
French substantives.
CHAPTER I.
French Substantives derived from Latin Substantives^.
§ 179. The French language has carried over several thousands of
Latin substantives, such as chanire, cantor; pdtre, pastor; kgon,
lectionem, &c. ; and has also created a vast number of others from
French substantives already existing ; such as journe'e, anne'e, soiree,
matinee, from Jour, an, soir, matin; chevalerie from chevalier, &c*
All these formations are studied in detail in §§ 191, sqq., under the
heads of the suffixes -alls, -anus, -aris, -arius, -aticum, -atus, -etum,
-eria *, -ianus, -ile, -iste, to which the reader is referred.
^ We do not here speak of pronouns, for there is only one French word
which has sprung from a Latin pronoun, that is, identite from idem ; and
.even in this case, it is not from classical but scholastic Latin, which
produced the forms identitatem and identicus ; so that even this word
is not of popular origin.
^ For all parts of this treatise on derivation and composition I have
followed Matzner's admirable classification.
eU INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER II.
French Substantives derived from Latin Adjectives.
§ 180. Just as un mort stands for un homme mort, un mortel for un
itre mortel, by excluding the substantive and calling the object by the
name of its epithet, so the words matin Jour, hiver, have been formed
from the Latin adjectives matutinum, diurnum, hibemum, sc.
tempus: similarly cierge, roche, netge, grange, lange, longe, U, ch^ne,
droit, hdtel, are from the adjectives cereus, rupea *, nivea, granea *,
lanea, lumbea*, latus, quercinus*, directum, hospitalis. Several
substantives of this class, such as sanglier, linge^ coursier, bouclier^
were adjectives in Old French (as may be seen under these words
in the Dictionary), the Old French phrase running un drap linge,
un pore sanglier, un cheval coursier, un icu bouclier ; and they became
substantives at a comparatively late epoch in the history of the
language. For details, see under the suffixes cited in § 179, and
also under the three suffixes, -tas, -tudo, -ia (it-ia).
CHAPTER III.
French Substantives derived from Latin Prepositions.
§ 181. These are very rare, whether they come direct from the
Latin, as contre'e from contrata* (derived from contra), entr allies from
interanea (derived from inter), or whether they have been formed
first hand by the French, as avantage from avant, devanture from
devant.
CHAPTER IV.
French Substantives derived from Latin Verbs.
§ 182. The French language derives substantives from verbs either
by using the root of the verb, with or without suffixes ; or by using
the present infinitive, or the present participle, the past participle, or
the future passive participle.
§ 183. I. i. From the verb-root with suffix. — By joining to the verb-
root certain terminations, each of which brings with it a special modi-
fication of the meaning, the French language has created a multitude
of substantives : thus from abreuv-er, e'clair-er, all-er, it has produced
abreuv-oir, eclair-eur, all-ure. These suffixes thus used for the
creation of substantives are about twenty in number [-alls, -anda
(-enda), -antia, -anus, -aldus, -ardus, -aris, -arius, -aster, -aticum,
-atus, -etum, -eria * ? -ela, -ianus, -icius, -ile, -ina, -issa, -iste,*
-m.en (-amen, -imen, -umen), -mentum, -or (-tor, -sor), -orius,
-tionem, -ura]. See Sect. III. Chapter I. for the detailed study of
each of these suffixes.
DERIVA TION OF SUBSTANTIVES. Ciii
§ 184. ii. From the verb-root without suffix. — The French language
creates new substantives by taking them from the verb, by the simple
addition to its root of the gender-ending : thus, after the Latin verbs
apportare, purgare, appellare, have given the verbs apporter, purger,
appeler, the French language takes the roots of these verbs, apport,
purge, appel, and uses them as new substantives, which had no originals
in Latin, and are called verbal substantives. These verbs number
about three hundred ^, and are all of the first conjugation ^. A certain
number of these substantives are concrete : as ragout from ragoHter,
rabat from rabattre, decor from decorer, e'gout from e'goutter, empois
from empeser, engrais from engraisser, reverbere from riverberer,
repaire from O. Fr. repairer ^ rechaud from re and e'chauder, depeche
from de'p^cher, cri from crier, conserve from conserver, contour from
contourner, traite from traiter, relief from relever, repli from replier ;
but most of them are abstract, and indicate the action expressed
by the verb : such are appel from appeler, apport from apporter,
baisse from baisser, aide from aider, avance from avancer, epouvante
from e'pouvanter, offre from offrir, peche from picher, recherche from
rechercher, tremp from tremper, &c. ^
Whence has the genius of the French language learnt so
fruitful and ingenious a process, enabling it to create so large a
number of substantives which have no Latin parent? The answer _
is at hand — The FrencJ;i.and the Latin are simply successive con-^-*^^-^
ditions of the same language ; and there is no grammatical process ^ij
employed in the . French which is not to be found, in germ at least,
in the Latin ; thus the Romans in their day created (especially
inllieir time of decadence) verbal substantives out of their infinitives :
thus from probare, luetari, &c. came proba, lucta, which appear for
the first time long after the verb ; proba in Ammianus Marcellinus.
lucta in Ausonius.
Two characteristic facts shew us with what fertility the French \
language has developed this process thus handed down to it from
the Latin. On the one hand, it has been applied to words which
are completely strangers to the Latin language, and such substantives
as galop, debut, regard, have been formed from verbs of Germanic
^ These derivatives have a peculiarity which is quite unique ; they are
shorter than the words whence they come. We must carefully avoid
confounding these substantives, which spring from verbs, with those which
have given birth to verbs (such d&fete, lard, whence^/eter, larder).
^ The eight or ten substantives (such as maintien from maintenir, recueil
from recueil lir, accueil from accueillir) which belong to other conjugations
have been formed by analogy. The other conjugations have formed no
verbal substantives like those of the first conjugation, because they have
at their disposal the strong participial substantives (studied in § 188).
^ About one-third of these substantives are of the masculine gender.
civ INTRODUCTION.
origin, such as galoper^ dibuter^ regarder ; on the other hand, the
process is still in active operation, and daily gives birth to fresh words ;
thus of late years have appeared casse from casser, chauffe froni
chauffer ^y and this fact shews us the persistent nature and spontaneous
action of the laws of language, and the certainty with which the
popular instinct advances, quite unconsciously, in the formation of
new words.
§ 185. II. The Infinitive. — From the present infinitive come a
tolerably large number of masculine substantives, such as diner,
dejeuner, souper, goUter, vivre and vivres, manger, boire, loyer, savoir,
pouvoir, devoir, plaisir, itre, loisir, repentir, avenir, sourire, baiser,
souvenir, &c., all of them used as masculine substantives.
§ 186. III. The Present Participle. — Just as the Latin language had
created a substantive, amans (a lover), from the present participle
of the verb amare, so the French language has created, by help
of present participles, the substantives marchand from mercantem *,
manant from manentem ; sergent, servientem ; se'ant, sedentem, to
say nothing of forms which have come direct from the French
participle, such as tranchant, vivant, servant, gouvernante, me'chant,
from trancher, vivir, servir, gouverner ; michant, O. Fr. meschant, is
from the old verb mescheoir, like se'ant from seoir, ichiant from
ichoir.
§ 187. IV. The Past Participle. — The Latin tongue possessed the
faculty of creating substantives out of its past participles : thus from
peccatmn, p. p. of peccare, came the substantive peceatum, a sin ;
from fossa, p. p. of fodere, came fossa, a ditch, &c. And the French
language, not content with thus turning the Latin participles into sub-
stantives (as in avoui, advocatus; ecrit, scriptum, &c.), in its turn
expanded this grammatical process, and created from French parti-
ciples a multitude of substantives masculine and feminine, such
as/ait, regu, dH, re'duit, masculines, and crois/e, nichee, durie, trancMe,
partie, issue, feminines, all of them past participles of the vtxh^faire,
devoir, recevoir, &c. And this it does especially with feminine par-
ticiples. The number of substantives thus obtained is considerable ;
for the French language forms substantives with both classes of par-
ticiples, the strong as well as the weak ^
^ La chauffe, a furnace ; une surface de chauffe, a fire-surface, flue-surface.
^ A strong participle is one which is accented on the root, as dictus,
fdctus, trdctus ; a 'weak participle is accented on the ending, as am-dtus,
purg-dtus. Similarly, in French, dit, fait, joint, are strong; aimee, purgee,
iveak participles. The strong participles are those which ordinary gram-
marians class mechanically under the name of irregular participles, and
fweak ones under the name of the regular. For further details, see
Historical Grammar, p. 140.
DERIVATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. cv
T. Formed from ze;<?(2/^ (or regular) participles; such as chevauchee,
accouchee, &c.
2. Formed from strong (or irregular) participles ; such as dit,
joint, r^duit, trait, &c. We know (see Historical Grammar, p. 140)
that Modern French has replaced most of these strong participles
by weak ones ; still the substantives formed from the strong forms
remain : thus the old feminine participle defense, defensa, has been
replaced by the weak form difendue, while it remains as a sub-
stantive.
§ 188. The following is a list of these strong participles ^ no longer
in use as such, but still remaining as substantives.
, It will be seen that the modern form, the correspondent weak
participle, is set side by side (within brackets) with the old strong
participle, which has become a substantive, and the Latin word
whence it comes : —
Emplette, implieita {employee) ; exploit, explicitum {/ploy^) ; meute,
movita {mue^., and its compound imeute, exmovita [emue) ; pointe,
puncta [poindre, in the sense of to prick = pungere ; this word
remains as a participle in the word courte-pointe, in O. Fr. coulte-pointe,
from Latin culcita-puncta) ; course, eursa {courue) ; trait, tractum,
and its compounds por- trait, retrait, traite, &c. ; source, sursa {surgie),
and its compound ressource ; the verb is sourdre, siirgere; route,
rupta {rompue), and its compounds deroute, banqueroute, i. e. banque,
rompue ; defense, defensa {difendtie), and its congeners offense, &c. ;
tente, t6ndita {tendue), and its compounds attente, de'tente, entente, &c. ;
rente, r6ddita {r endue) ; pente, p6ndita * {pendue), and its compounds
soupente, susp6ndita * isuspendue) ; poste, posita {pose'e) ; repas, re-
pastus (repu) ; croit, cr§scituni * (crue), and its compound surer oit;
semonce, formerly semonse, summonsa * ; entorse, intorsa * ; suite,
s6quita* (suivie), yAiencQ poursuite ; vente, v^ndita, ■ (vendue) ; perte,
p6rdita (perdue); quete, qua§sita (quet/e), and its compounds con-
quete, requite, enquete ; recette, recepta (regue) ; ^dette, d6bita (dUe) ;
reponse, responsa (ripondue) ; elite, electa (Hue) ; tonte, t6ndita *
(tondue); mors, morsus (mordu) ; fonte, fiindita {fondue); compound
refonte ; toise, tensa (tendue) ; ponte, pondita* (pondue) ; fente, f6ndita
(f endue) ; faute, fallita (faillie) ; maltote, male-tollita ; boite, blbita
^ More than one participle in this list has never been used in French
except as a substantive; and its participial usage dates either from the
classical or the rustic Latin, which latter often created forms of which
no trace remains in any text, but which survive in the corresponding
French words. Thus entorse, semonce, suite (in Italian seguita), croit
(It. cresciuto), cannot answer to the classical forms intorta, summonita,
secuta, eretum, but to the popular forms intorsa *, summonsa *,
sequita*, crescitum*.
cri INTRODUCTION.
(bue) ; secousse, succussa {secouee) ; and its congener rescousse, from
O. Fr. escousse, which is the Latin excussa ; /m'/e, ftigita ; promesse^
promissa ( promise) ; e'cluse, ezclusa {exclue) ; itnpoi, impositum
{impost); d/pot, depositum {diposi); privSt^ praepositum {propose) ;
suppot, suppositum {suppose) ; entrepSl, interp6situni * {entrepose') ^ /
descente, desc6ndita * {descendue) ; plaid ^ pldcitum ^.
Thus, while Old French said itre mors, morsua ; etre route, rupta,
for itre mordue, rompue, Modern French, while it replaced the Old
French mors and route by mordu and rompu, created from these old
participles new substantives (un mors de cheval, une route). In a
few cases, very rare ones, the strong participle survives beside the
weak one ; as in un fit tors, and un fil tordu, which has not hindered
the formation of the substantive tort, conformably with the rule we
have described ^ Side by side with these two forms of expression
we have the triple form une femme absoute, une femme absolm^ and
the substantive absoute.
SECTION II.
Derivation of Adjectives.
§189. Adjectives are formed (i) by the present participle; as
charmant, savant, de'vorant, the present participles of the verbs charmer y
savoir, d/vorer. It often happens that a verb has disappeared in
Modern French, while its present participle remains as an adjective ;
thus the Old French verbs michoir, bier, galer, remain only in their
participles michant, biant, galant, which are now used as adjectives.
2. From the past participle : — poli, connu, fleuri, &.C., from polir,
connaitre,fleurir, &c.
3. From the verb-root. — This process, which we shewed, § 184, to
be so fruitful for substantives, has not been equally so for adjectives ;
still some traces of it occur in the adjectives gonfle from gonfler,
dispos, which comes from disposer, not from the Latin dispositus,
^ Propos and repos have no place in this list, as they are the substantives
of the verbs proposer and reposer, as has been seen in § 184.
^ We may add to this list dessert, desserte, formed by analogy from the
verb desservir ; absoute, absoluta ; soute, soluta ; chute, caduta *, although
these participles are not strong in Latin.
^ I have naturally included in this list only those strong participles which
have remained only as substantives, leaving out all those which remain in
French as both participles and substantives; such as dit, joint, adjoint,
reduit, conduit, conduite, produit, enduit, biscuit, ouie, clos, enclos, cowvert,
decowverte, miscy remise, prise, surprise, defaite, crue, contrainte, empreintCy
feinte, &c.
' ACCENTED SUFFIXES. cvii
which would have given d^pdt. Compare impositus, impot ; suppo-
situs, suppot ; praepositus, privdt.
4. By suffixes. — By this means the French language produces
fresh adjectives ; a. from substantives, as mensonger, courageux, age,
from mensonge, courage, dge ; or, jS. from adjectives, as jaundtre,
lourdaud, vieillot, from jaune, lourd, vieil ; or y. from verbs, as com-
parable, redoubtable, semblable, as comparer, redouter, sembler ; or 8.
from prepositions, as ancien from antianus *, derivative of ante ;
souverain from superanus*, derivative of supra. In the next chapter
will be found a list of all these suffixes, and of the derivations which
they have supplied to the French language.
I
SECTION III.
List of Nominal Suffixes.
§ 190. Here follows a detailed catalogue of nominal suffixes (i. e.
of suffixes which form substantives and adjectives), divided, as has
been already done in § 176, into accented and atonic. In this list of
suffixes will be found the three of Germanic origin (viz. -ard, -inc,
and -aud), which are to be met with in the French tongue : diminutive
and augmentative suffixes will be treated of separately.
CHAPTER I.
Accented Suffixes.
§ 191. Alls, ale become al, eP in popular French^: chenal, canalis^,*
journal, diumalis ; royal, regalis ; loyal, legalis ; hotel, hospitale ;
cheptel, capitale ; noel, natalis ; me'nestrel, ministrale * ; mortel,
mortalis ; charnel, earnalis ; voyelle, vocalis. Pluralis produced
in the regular way the, Old French plurel, changed afterwards into
the diphthongal />/«rz'^/, by changing e into ie. See § 56.
The suffixes -alls, -aris have been replaced, so far as French
derivatives are concerned, by the form -arius, and have disappeared,
leaving no posterity behind them.
§ 192. Antia, entia become ance in popular French *". as in enfance,
^ For the letter-change, see % 54.
"^ The learned form is al : cardinalis, cardinal ; hospitale, hopital.
^ Canalis has also produced another form, chenel, which was afterwards
softened into cheneau, just as bel became beau.
* The learned form from antia is ance, as in arrogance, arrogantia ;
of entia, ence^ as in innocence, innocentia.
I
cviii INTRODUCTION.
infantia; contenance, oontinentia *. We know that these abstract
substantives are formed from the present participle by adding the
suffix -ia ; thus from infantem has come infantia ; from con-
tinentem, continentia, &c. The French language, imitating this
process, has similarly created vengeance from vengeant, croyance from
croyant, confiance from confiant, e'chiance from icMant, jouissance from
jouissant. Participial substantives often come from forms which have
disappeared from Modern French, and are, as it were, living witnesses
to their dead ancestors : thus chance, formerly cheance, carries us back
to che'ant, participle of ch/oir, primitive form of choir, cadere ; and
ichiance carries us back, through dcMant, to echoir. Fiani, participle
of fier, gives us the Old French substantive fiance, whence again
the \trhfiancer. Engeance, finance, outrecuidance, similarly come from
the old verbs enger (to multiply oneself) ; finer (to conclude a
bargain, pay); outrecuider, ultra-cogitare. Cre'ance answers to the
archaic participle criani, to be found in the compound m/cr/ant.
DoUance, whence condoUaTue, similarly carries us through a participle
doUant, to a verb doUier, from a Latin type dolicare * ; while nuance,
laitance come through nuant, laitant, from the old verbs nuer, latter,
which are derived from the words nue, laite.
§ 193. Andus, endus. The passive future participle has provided
us, through its nominative plural neuter, with a certain number of
substantives. We must, however, take note that the French language,
following its customary use^, has treated these neuter plurals as if
they were feminine singulars, and has produced from them a number
of feminine substantives, such as viande from vivenda; provende
from praebenda ^ ; whence, by analogy, the French derivatives offrande
from offrir ; jurande ^romjurer ; re'primande from reprimer, &c.
From the combination of the suffix and with the suffix /<?r (see
§ 198), come the derivatives in andier, such as taill-andier from
iailler, filandiere from filer ; lavandiere from laver, &c.
^ It is well known that by a strange error the Merovingian Latin
mistook neuter pluralsJDu^. for feminine singulars of the-.£rst_de£lension.
Thus'from J)6cus^as formed pecoras r "* mter'^ecoras ' says aTlhar-
tulary of a.d. 757 (in Muratori). The same author has published a
collection of industrial receipts of the Merovingian epoch, in which we find
a feminine pergamina, from the neuter plural of pergamenum : ' per-
gamina quomodo fieri debet: mitte illam in calcem., at jaceat ibi
per dies tres.' In this way the French language has produced a certain
number of feminine substantives ; as mer'veille, mirabilia ; bible, biblia * ;
come, cornua ; aumailk, animalia ; tempe, tempera ; brasse, brachia ;
arme, arma ; muraille, muralia ; 'volatile, volatilia ; feuille, folia ; saussaiey
saliceta ; and all the suffixes in ate from eta, plural of etum.
2 Learned forms are legende from legenda ; prebende from praebenda.
ACCENTED SUFFIXES. cix
§ 194. Anus, ana become am, en — aim, enne ^ / as chdtelain,
castellanus * ; auhain, albanus * ; ecrivain, scribanus ; poulain,
pullanus * ; humain, humanus ; souverain, superanus * ; vilain,
villanus * ; lointain, longitanus * ; fontaine, fontana.
When anus follows i it becomes en, whether the i be original,
as in ancien, antianus; chre'tien, christianus, or whether it comes
from the dropping of the medial consonant (see Historical Grammar,
p. 37), as m. paien, paganus; doyen, decanus ; mqyen, medianus;
miioyen, medietanus *; citoyen, civitadanus *.
French derivatives formed by analogy are also very numerous;
such are quatre, quatrain,^; dix, dizain ; six, sixain; douze,douzaine ;
neuf, neuvaine ; haut, hautain ; proche, prochain ; Afric-ain, Napolit-
ain, Americ-ain : the one exception under this class is paysan, pays,
which should have been pay sain, and indeed is found so in the twelfth
century and onwards : this one deviation may be due to dissimilation
(§169). The form en is especially applied to professional nouns, such
as m/canicien, chirurgien, musicien, grammairien ^.
§ 195. Aldu§,.a,siiffix of Germariic origin. In a great many Prankish
proper names we may notice a suHTx, wald, which denotes force,
command, answering to the modern German Ge-walt, walten, to
wield ; thus Chlodo-wald, Grimo-wald, Anso-wald, &c. This suffix
was transcribed into aldus by the Gallo-Romans ^ ; and we find
in Merovingian Latin the names Chlodo-aldus, Grimo-aldus, Anso-
aldus, Regin-aldus, which in Carolingian times became Grim-aldus,
Regin-aldus, by the regular change of oaldus into aldus. By the
customary softening of al into au (§ 157), aldus became aud ; whence
Grimaldus, Grimaud ; Reginaldus, Regnaud.
This suffix has, i)£.en employed by the French language, but always
in a depreciatory or a bad sense, whether as attached to words of
QttxmSxSt on^xxi, 2J& clai-aud, crap-aud, or by analogy in French
derivatives, as lourd-aud, nig-aud, fin-aud, ronge-aud, sal-aud. pat-aud ;
and with a diminutive sense in levr-aui, a leveret.
§ 196. Ardus, a suffix of Germanic origin (Gothic hardus, German
hart, hard). This suffix, which has helped to form a great many
proper names, such as Regin-hart, Rein-hart, Renard ; Eber-hart,
Ehrart, Ebrard, Evrard, denotes intensity in French words ; and also
in very many cases takes a bad sense : thus ard is found in com-
^ For letter-changes, see § 54.
^ Faisan, phasianus, is in the same position as paysan ; on grounds of
dissimilation it could not become faisain. Such words as partisan, capitan,
"volcan, artisan, courtisan, are not to be added to the list, as they have
come in in modern times from Spain or Italy, and are not genuine French
words
^ Waldus (pronounced valdus) became aldus by dropping the medial
V (§ 141) : as Chlodo(v)aldus, Chlodoaldus, Qlodoald,
ex INTRODUCTION.
bination (i) with substantives; as monfagne, montagnard ; hdt, bdtard ;
canSy canard ; bt'lle, billard ; bras, brassard ; cutsse, cuissard ; couard,
oaud-arduB * / hagard (Lat. haga) ; brancard, from O. Fr. branc^
masculine form of branche ; mouche, mouchard ; poing, poignard ;
moiit, moutarde ; poule, poularde ; campagne, campagnard ; corbeil,
corbillard ; /pine, ipinard ; putts, puisard ; or (2) with adjectives,
as vteil, viellard ; or (3) with verbs, as pend-re, pendard ; etend-re,
itendard ; fui-r,fuyard ; babiller, babillard ; baver, bavard ; brailler^
braillari ; brocher, brocart ; brouiller, brouillard ; crier, criard ;
nasiller, nasillard ; p/ter, pilar d ; piller, pillar d ; plaquer, placard.
§ 197. Aris becomes ier in popular French *, as sanglier, singularis ;
icolier, scholaris.
§ 198. Arius. This suffix, which is derived from aris, and has
entirely supplanted it in new-formed French words, becomes ier, as
premier, primarius. In popular French^ this form ier is reduced
to er after ch, g^ ; as in vacher, porcher, boucher, archer, bUcher,
clocher, cocher, gaucher, picker, plancher, rocher ; berger, danger,
boulanger, itranger, leger, verger, oranger, viager, mensofiger.
This suffix, ier, is the most productive of all French suffixes : ist, in
adjectives, 2.% premier, primarius; le'ger, leviarius*, whence, by analogy,
the French derivatives plenier from plein ; bocager from bocage ; men-
songer from mensonge ; dernier, formerly derrenier, from O. Fr. derrain,
dernier, Lat. deretranus *. 2nd, in substantives which vary exceed-
ingly in sense : thus, ier designates, (i) the names of plants or trees, as
poirier, pommier, noyer, nucarius * ; amandier, laurier, figuier, peuplier,
grenadier, prunier,/raisier, miirier, cerisier, citronnier, oranger, eglantier,
from O. Fr. aiglent, a thorn: (2) names of animals, as le'vrier, lepo-
rarius, be'lier, from O. Fr. belle, limier, formerly liemier, from lien,
originally Hem ? (3) Names of trades : poller, pot ; batelier, from O. Fr.
batel ; chamelier, from O. Fr. chamel ; cordonnier, formerly cordouanier,
from O. Fr. cordouan ; huissier, from O. Fr. huis ; conseiller, con-
siliarius ; icuyer, scutarius ; berger, vervecarius. In bijou-l-ier from
bijou; cafe-l-ier from cafe' ; clou-t-ier from clou; boyau-d-ier from
boyau, the consonant is intercalated to avoid the hiatus. (4) The con-
ception of a receptacle : as colombier, columbarium ; verger, viri-
^ For letter-changes, see § 54. The learned form is aire ; as vulgaire,
vulgaris ; populaire, popularis, by the side of which, for learned words
of rather greater antiquity, we find again the form ier ; as regulier, regu-
laris ; singulier, singularis.
^ Anus has similarly supplanted the suffix alis, which is, in fact, only
another form of aris, § 176.
* In this list of suffixes in er we do not name those which follow j* or
soft //, because these letters have included in them the i of ier ; such are
ecuyer, noyer, bruyere, gruyer f, metayer, foyer, -voyer ; conseiller, cornouiller,
ecaillere, poulailler, oreiller.
ACCENTED SUFFIXES. cxi
diarium * ; foyer, focarium ; chartrier, chartularium ; grenier, gra-
narium ; encrier from encre ; sablier from sahle.
Hence it is plain that ier produces, in each of these cases, such
varied changes of sense that it is not easy to reduce its effects to
one formulary. We may read with advantage the reflections which
this great variety of results has suggested to M. Br^al ^, in a fine
passage full of the philosophy of language. He says : —
'■ Thus from pomme, figue, amande, we have created pommier, figuier,
amandier. Judging from these, we might think that -ier indicates
the thing which produces the object named by the primitive word.
But, on the other hand, there are words like encrier, huilier, herbier,
colandier, in which -ier indicates not the thing which produces, but
the thing which receives. It may be suggested that this idea of
reception has led to that of origination, and that the two ideas
may be thus merged in one. But then what shall we do with
such words as prisonnier, where -ier indicates neither the producing
agent nor the receptacle, but, on the contrary, the thing contained .?
Again, if we have prisonnier from prison, so have we also geolier
from geSle, which is quite the opposite thing. Nor is this all : the
connection in sense which couples chevalier with cheval is not the same
with that which connects bouvier with boeuf, or levrier with lievre.
One could easily multiply examples ; but these are enough to shew
that the mind must come to the rescue in the case of so variable
a suffix.
' It certainly would not be impossible to conceive a sense so abstract
as to suit all these derivatives, especially if we imagine ourselves
re-establishing that neuter gender which the language has lost. But
let us consider what passes in our mind when we use these words :
each time we supply to ourselves a relation of a concrete kind and
of a particular species. The word voiturier means the coachman
of a voiture, while carrossier means the maker of a carrosse ; a
cuirassier is a soldier who wears a cuirasse, but an armurier is a man
who makes or sells arms. The mind divines or knows by tradition
these relations, which are not in the least expressed by the words
themselves, and our intelligence fills up the blank.
' It is possible that, originally, man tried to give a proper suffix
to each relation which his mind could conceive. But this attempt
he must fain abandon ere long, as the crowd of the relations, which
his growing experience called up, pressed more and more on him.
And thus, too, just as idioms grow older, these auxiliaries of thought,
far from increasing in number, as one might have expected, shew
a distinct tendency to decrease. The more common suffixes elbow
out the weaker ones : the mind, content with a certain number of
^ M. Breal, Idtes latentes du langagCy p. lo, 1. 13 — p. 12, 1. 24.
cxii INTRODUCTION.
signs, trusts more and more to its own intelligence, helped by-
tradition.
* We have, no doubt, artificial nomenclatures, in which the termina-
tion at once tells us the position of the object designated in a scientific
classification. Thus chemical nomenclature is a kind of spoken
catalogue, in which every change in the composition of a body is
indicated by a corresponding change in the form of its name. But
we must remember that, amidst the infinity of relations in which
things can stand to one another in the world, the language of
chemistry chooses out a few and neglects the rest, thus arriving at
exactitude by specialising rigorously. On the contrary, common
speech, which ought to sufiice for the universality of our knowledge,
very properly dispenses with scientific rigour, and, without striving
after impossibilities, compels new ideas into the existing forms which
have been handed down to it from ages past.'
I" § 199. Aster. This suffix retains in French the depreciatory and
bad sense it had in the Latin poetaster, philosophaster, and the
diminutive sense it had in surdaster, novellaster, &c. Aster be-
came in popular French dtre, originally aslre ; mardtre, matrasta * ;
pardtre, patraster ; saumdtre, salmaster * ; noirdtre from noir ; grisdtre
from gris ; hleudtre from hleu ; rougedire from rouge ; foldtre from
fol
§ 200. Atus (of the fourth declension). This suffix becomes /
in popular French ^ As a substantive -atus indicates employment,
oflfice, dignity; as in consulatus, senatus, pontificatus, legatus;
comti^ comitatus ; duche\ ducatus ; clergi^ clerieatus. By analogy
mar/ckaussee, sinichaussee, from marechal, s^n^chal.
§ 201. Atus, utus, suffixes which indicate possession, form adjectives
drawn straight from substantives (following the analogy of the present
participle ?), but are not to be confounded with § 200.
Thus the Latins said alatus from ala, barbatus from barba,
comutus from comu, &c., whence (by the regular changes of atus
into e"^, and of utus into u ^, come the adjectives ros^, rosatus ; ail/,
alatus ; comu, comutus ; chenu, canutus ; eu, bit, vu, sH, formerly
<?«, heil, veil, seii, from Latin habutus*, bibutus*, vidutus*, saputus*,
as is shewn by the Italian forms avuio, veduto, &c.; whence also,
by analogy, come numerous French derivatives, as age from dge ;
^ The learned form is at; as senat, senatus; consulate consulatus;
pontificate pontificatus. On this model have been constructed such de-
generate and ill-formed words as marquisat from marquis, generalat from
general.
2 For letter-changes, see §§ 187, 188.
^ For letter-changes, see §§ 187, 188.
ACCENTED SUFFIXES. cxiii
maniere, mam'/re ; a f aire, affaire ; orangey orangi ; bar be, barbu ;
ventre, ventru ; tete, teiu ; point, pointu.
The feminine suffix ata, ee in French, imitating the feminine of
the past participle, see § 200 (care must be taken not to confuse them
together), is joined to substantives, with a view to the creation of
other substantives which shall express either (i) the quantity con-
tained in the primitive, as charrette, charrettee ; assi'ette, assiette'e ;
gorge, gorg^e ; cuiller, cuillere'e ; bouche, bouchie ; and, consequently,
relations of times : jour, journe'e ; soir, soire'e ; matin, matine'e ; an,
anne'e ; or (2) the object produced by the primitive, as araignee,
araneata*, originally a cobweb spun by the aragne, aranea.
By the side'*of this suffix, ee, which is the old popular and true
French form of ata, there is also a form ade, imported from the
Romance languages of the South '^ — from Provengal, in or
about the thirteenth century^, from Spanish and Italian. Thus,
grenade, dorade, bigarrade, croisade, ballade, come from Provengal
grenada (Lat. granata), daurada (Lat. de-aurata*), crozada (Lat.
cruciata *, from crucem), balada (Lat. ballata * ^). Arcade,
balustrade, embuscade, esplanade, estrade, gambade, panade, are from
Italian areata, balustrata, imboscata, splanata, strata, gambata, panata.
Camarade, algarade are from Spanish camarada, algarada *.
This foreign suffix ade has oeen so largely imported, and at a
time when the French language had still a certain plastic force, that
it has been adopted as a popular suffix, and is still employed to
form a crowd of new words, such as promenade, embrassade, glissade,
bourfade, &c.
§ 202. Ela becomes elle in French, as in chandelle, candela;
querelle, querela, is perhaps a learned word. This suffix has
remained unfruitful, and has produced no new French words.
§ 203. Elis usually becomes el : cruel, crudelis ; but becomes
al after a guttural. This suffix has also been barren.
§ 204. Ellus becomes first el, flien eau, as has been seen § 157 ; thus
agnellus becomes agnel, then agneau ; vascellum, vaissel, then
^ The Latin suffix ata became Italian dta, Spanish and Proven9al ada',
thus diumata* is in Italian giornata, in Provencal and ^^zmsh Jornada. ^^
■^ The oldest example, known to us, of the suffix ade in French is noix \
mugade (nux muscata), in the Roman de la Rose. /
" Auhade, bigarrade, are from the modern Provenyal auhado, albata ; '
higarrado.
* When one of these foreign words in ade falls in with a popular
word, coming from the same Latin root, there ensues a doublet : thus the
Latin salata becomes salee in French, salada in Spanish ; salee and salade,
on the entry of the latter word from Spain, form a ' doublet ' ; so too with
che'vauchee, caballicata *, and ca'valcade ; panee, panata, and panadcy and
so on.
i
cxiv INTRODUCTION.
vaisseau ; gemellus, Jumel, then jumeau, &c. ^ Cerveau, cerebellum \
chalumeau, calamellus ; nouveau, novellus ; oiseau, aucellum ; pourceau,
porcellum. This eau becomes tau in fabliau, originally fableau and
fablel from fisibulellum *, and in boyau from bo(t)ellum, by a letter-
change studied in § 157 ^.
We have seen, under § 18, how the suffix ellus, a diminutive in
Latin, loses in French its diminutive force; in some words, such
as vaisseau, vascellum* (properly *a little vessel'), it has even taken
an augmentative sense.
§ 205. Emia becomes ange, as has been shewn in § 244, and
Historical Grammar, p. 66 : vendange, vindem.ia ; louar^e^ laudemia *;
and, by analogy, vidange from vider ; melange from meler ; lavange
from laver.
§ 206. Ensis. This suffix is reduced first to esis, as is shewn §163,
and in this form produces the French is^ in pays, originally pais,
from pa(g)esis * ; marquis, marchesis * ; ois * in bourgeois, burgesis*.
§ 207. Enus, ena becomes ain, oin, ein, in, ine, ene ; as venin,
venenum ; plein, plenus ; terrain, terrenum ; seine, sagena ; avoine,
avena ; chaine, O. Fr. chaene, ca(t)ena.
§ 208. Eria, see under ia, § 244.
§ 209. Ernum becomes er, as in hiver, hibemum; enfer, infer-
num ; cahier, quaternum. Erna becomes erne : lanterne, laterna ;
taverne, tabema; citerne, cistema.
§ 210. Estus becomes este in Old French, ete ^ in Modern French,
as honnete, honestus. This suffix has been barren in French.
§ 211. Etum. Derivatives with this ending denote a district
planted with trees. It becomes ay ^, found in such proper names as
Chatenay, Castanetum; Rouvray, Roboretum ; Aulnay, Alnetum.
It is chiefly through the plural eta that this suffix has developed itself
in French, by producing (after the rule of neuter plurals. Hist. Gram.
p. 97) feminine substantives in aie'^ : shussaie, saliceta; ormaie, ulmeta;
aunaie, alneta. There are many French derivations formed on this
model : roseraie from rosier ; oseraie from osier ; chdtaigneraie from
'chdtaignier ; houssaie from houx, &c. Ronceraie has either been
formed from a lost primitive, roncier, or by analogy ?
§ 212. Icus becomes i^ : ami, amicus ; ennemi, inimicus; fourwA,
* The primitive form in el remains in some few expressions: in the
phrase 'se mettre martel en tete,' euphonic feeling has retained the old
form instead of the more modern marteau.
"^ The feminine form ella becomes el/e in French : as pastourelle, pas-
torella * ; ecuelle, scutella ; 'vaisselle, vascella *.
^ For letter-changes, see § 58. * For letter-changes, see § 62.
* For letter-changes, see § 147. ^ For letter-changes, see § 62.
^ For letter-changes, see § 62. * For letter-changes, see § 129.
ACCENTED SUFFIXES. cx^
formicus * : ica becomes t'e : amie, arnica ; orft'e, urtica ; vessi'e,
vesica.
§ 213. Icem becomes t's ^ in perdicem, whence O. Fr. perdn's, now
perdrix : isse in genisse, from junicem.
§ 214. Itius, icius (a suffix attached to verbs.?) becomes is"^ ; as in
mills, mixtitius ; plessis, plexLtius ; levis, levaticius * ; coulis, cola-
ticius * ; pdtis, pasticium * ; and hence the French derivatives,
diquelis, cliqueter ; hachis, hacher ; abatis, abattre ; gdchis, gdcher ;
logis, loger ; color is, color er.
§ 215. Ignus becomes in^ : benin, benignus ; malin, malignus.
§ 216. ilis becomes il: chenil, Q2,-mi.Q', fusil, focnlQ ) fenil, foenile;
gentil, gentilis ; avril, aprilis, &c.
We must takecare not to confound ilis with ilis, which is dis-
cussed § 250. Ilis is joined only to substantives or adverbs, as
puerilis, puer ; gentilis, gens ; subtilis, subter ; while ilis is com-
bined only with verbs, as agilis, agere ; facilis, facere ; utilis, uti.
§ 217. Ista becomes isle. This learned suffix, which comes from I
the Greek KTri]^, and was introduced by Christian writers into the Latin \
language (baptista, evangelista, psalmista), denotes persons by the |
name of the science which they pursue ; as legiste, juriste, journalisie, »
oculiste from oculus ; herborisle from O. Fr. herbor, her be; dentiste from
dent, &c.
§ 218. Ismus becomes isme. This suffix, which comes from the I
Greek kt/jlos, is, like ista, purely a learned suffix : syllogisme, syllo- I
gismus; barbarisme, barbarismus; solecisme, soloecismus; whence I
the modern derivatives germanisme, communisme, socialisme, anglicisme,
mahometisme. .
§ 219. Iscus becomes ois^, in Thiois from Thiotiscus, i^r<2;zf m from I
Franciscus; and this drops to ais in marais, O. Fr. marois, from I
mariscus. (Compareyr^zzj from friscus *.)
^ For letter-changes, see § 129.
^ The learned form is ice, as mfactice, factitius; adnjentice, adventicius.
^ For letter-changes, see § 131.
* For letter-changes, see § 58. The suffix iscus is of Latin origin. |
We find in Roman writers mariscus, syriscus, libyscus, scutiscum, 1
calathiscus. The Greeks also had this diminutive suffix, ore^ai/iV/coff, j
dficfjopicTKos, &c. But iscus was very rarely used in Latin, and the Romance \
languages in employing it so frequently, have been influenced by the
Germanic suffix isk (Modern German iscb), which often caused a confusion
between the two idioms, — a confusion which has been very fruitful in the
production of new words. The Wallachian has iscus under the form
esc, a fact which proves to us that the origin of it is Latin and not Ger-
manic, as the separation of the Wallachians from the Empire took place
as early as the second century, and therefore long before the Germanic
invasion.
i 2
cxvi INTRODUCTION.
I This suffix becomes esco ii\Jtalian, as in iedesco, theotiscus. The
Italian language uses it in a ""gresniumber of new formations ; as
pittoresco from pittore ; grottesco from grotta ; gigantesco from gigante ;
burlesco from burla ; arabesco from arahc ; pedantesco from pedante ;
soldaie^ca from soldato. In the sixteenth century all these Italian
words migrated across the mountains, and produced in France the
forms arabesque, burlesque, grotesque, gigantesque,pe'danlesque, pittoresque,
{ soldatesque, iudesque. The French language has employed this suffix
! to form new words ; thus she says romanesque, chevaleresque (imitating
\ the Italian caballeresco).
§ 220. Inus becomes in : devin, divinus ; pelerin, peregrinus ;
voisin, vicinus ; moultn, molinum * ; chemin, caminus ; dauphin,
delphinus ; ichevin, scabinus ; matin, matutinum ; matin, man-
satinum *. Ina becomes ine : poitrine, peetorina ; courtine, cortina ;
cuisine, cocina * ; geline, gallina ; racine, radicina ; routine, rup-
tina*.
We may here cite, among French derivatives, substantives drawn
(i) from verbs: saisine, saisir ; gisine, g^sir ; (2) from other sub-
stantives: titin, tette ; crapaudine, crapaud ; becassine, bicasse ; bottine,
botte ; chopine, chope ^ ; couleuvrine, couleuvre ; Eglantine from O. Fr.
aiglant ; houssine, houx ; serpentine, serpent ; terrine, terre ; sourdine^
sourd.
§ 221. Inc. A suffix of Germanic origin, denoting filiation, origin,
which regularly became enc ^ in Old French, whence it is reduced to
an in modern French (wrongly written and in some cases) : thus
Flaeming becomes O. Fr. Flamenc, now Flamand ; chamarling be-
comes O. Fr. chambrelene, chamberlenc, now chambellan ; Lodaring
became Loherenc, then Loherai?!, lastly Lorraitt. This suffix has even
been applied to words which are not of Germanic origin ; thus from
kisser comes O. Fr. tisserenc, later tisseranc, whence tisseratid.
§ 222. Issa becomes esse. This suffix in imperial Rome in-
dicated the feminine : abbatissa from abbatem ; prophetissa from
prophetam ; sacerdotissa from sacerdotem. It appears in the
French derivatives abbes se, abbatissa; traitresse ixom. traitre; prophetesse
ivova. prophete ; vengeresse ivomvengeur ; duchesse iv<ya\ due ; enchanteresse
from enchanteur ; pe'cheresse from pe'cheur ; chanoinesse from chanoine.
§ 223. Ivus becomes if^ ; ch/tif, captivus ; naif, nativus ; ratify
restivus*. Its French derivatives are plentiful : poussif {lova pousser ;
hdtif from hdter ; pensif from penser ; craintif from crainte. Iva
becomes ive ; ogive, augiva* ; che'tive, captiva ; olive, oliva, &c.
^ In these words ine acts as a diminutive suffix.
^ For letter-changes, see § 72.
' For letter-changes, see § 142. In bajulivus * the O. Fr. bAiliff is
reduced in Modern French to bailli.
ACCENTED SUFFIXES. cxvii
§ 224. Lentus becomes lant in popular French^: sanglani, sangui- |
lentus.
§ 225. Mentum becomes ment^, 2&froment, fmmentum ; viiement,
vestimentum ; tourment, tormentum, &c. The French language |
uses this suffix to produce substantives from verbs, by intercalating j
an e between the verbal root and the suffix : thus we have from \
hurl-er, hurl-e-ment ; from commenc-er , commenc-e-ment ; from aboy-er^
aboi-e-meni, &c. This e is intercalated only with verbs in er ^ ; with
verbs in ir * i is intercalated, as sent-i-ment, sentir ; ressent-i-meniy
ressentir ; but it should be noticed that these are learned words ; the
popular form is certainly that with e ^.
§ 226. Men. This suffix, which is the root of mentum, under the i
three forms, a-men, i-men, u-men, has produced a certain number
of French words, but has made no new creations, having been sup-
planted in this by its derivative mentum, see § 225.
Amen becomes atn, aim : eirain, stram^en ^ ; airain, aeramen,
levain, levam.en ; merrain, m.aterianien ; lien for liain, from
ligam.en; essaim, examen.
Imen becomes in, ain '^ : sain, formerly sa'm, from sa(g)inien ; irain,
formerly fra'm, from tra(g)im.en ; nourrain, nutrimen.
Umen becomes un in alun, alumen^
§ 227. Orem, which forms abstract substantives, becomes eur^ ; as
^ The learned form is ent : 'violent^ violentus ; somnolent, somnolentus,
&c.
2 Why not mant 1
^ Except a few words like •vet-e-ment from 'vetir ; recueill-e-ment from
recueillir ; c6nsent-e-ment from consentir ; tressaill-e-ment from tressaillir.
* It may be remarked that these verbs are not inchoative (i.e. they
reproduce the Latin forms). As for inchoative verbs (i. e. those which
form their imperfect in -issais, not -ais, like rugir), they form substantives
in -ment, by inserting the inchoative particle iss : rug-iss-e-ment from rugir ;
accompl-iss-e-ment from accomplir ; abrut-iss-e-ment from ahrutir. There
are a few exceptions, like hdt-i-ment from bdtir ; blanch-i-ment from blan-
chir ; assort-i-ment from assortir.
^ Verbs of the fourth conjugation (in re) form substantives by adding
e to the verbal root ; rend-e-ment, batUe-ment, entend-e-ment, from rendre,
battre, entendre. Bruire, accroitre, decrottre, connaitre, which have ss in the
imperfect, bruissais, acroissais, decroissais, connaissais, make bruissementy
accro'issem, dectroissement, connaissement.
^ For letter-changes, see § 54. The learned form is amen, as examen,
exam.en.
"^ The learned form is ime : as crime, crimen ; regime, regimen.
* For letter-changes, see § 161. The learned form is ume: as bitume,
bitumen ; legume, legumen ; volume, volumen.
^ By a change, studied § 79. There is but one exception to this rule ;
cxviu INTRODUCTION.
douleur, dolorem ; doucettr, dulcorem ; couleur, colorem ; sueurj
sudorem ; peur, pavorem. On this model the French language has
formed new words: puanteur from puant ; pesanieur from pesant ;
largeur from large ; grandeur from grand, &c.
§ 228. Sorem, torem. These suffixes (not to be confounded
with orem) which express the name of the agent, become seur and
ieur * ; de/enseur, defensorem ; pecheur, piscatorem ; chanfeur, canto-
rem ; pasteur, pastorem ; p/cheur, peccatorem ; sauveur, salvatorem ;
empereur, imperatorem, &c.
The French derivatives under this head, which are very numerous,
follow the same rules of formation as have been studied above in
§ 225, mentum ; i. e. non-inchoative verbs form their substantives
in eur, as jouer, joueur, while inchoatives form them in iss-eur^
as nourrtr, nourrisseur ; blanchir, blanchisseur ^.
The feminine trix, as in nutricem, nourrice, whence ledeur, ledrice ;
bien/aiieur, bten/actrice, has been almost entirely replaced in Modern
French by the two other feminine suffixes euse, and eresse thus
lavatrix* from lavator, becomes laveuse ; we ha^ve p^cheur, pecca-
torem, but packer esse is the equivalent of peccatricem.
§ 229. Osus, which forms substantives from adjectives, becomes
eux ^, and osa, euse : noueux, nodosus ; envieux, invidiosus ; amou-
reux, amorosus ; Mdeux, hispidosus *.
New forms under this head are very numerous : as chanceux
from chance ; pierreux from pierre ; soigneux from soin ; courageux
from courage ; heureux from O. Fr. heur ; affreux from O. Fr. affre ;
doucereux from douceur^ ; orgueilleux from orgueiP.
§ 230. Tatem, which in Latin produces substantives from ad-
amour, not ameur, from amorem. Labour does not fall under this head
of exception, as it does not come from laborem (which has duly pro-
duced labeur), but is the verbal substantive of labourer, see § 18.
^ For letter-changes, see § 79.
"^ The suffix eur was softened later into eux in the words piqueux,
piqueur ; porteux, porteurs ; faucheux, Jaucheur ; 'violonneux, 'violonneur ; and
into ou in ^lou, Jileur ; gabelou, gabeleur ; ou for eur is met with in some
patois (?).
^ For letter-changes, see § 149. The learned form is ose: as morose,
m.orosus ; 'ventSse, ventosus ; sinose, sinosus.
* Jaloux from zelosus, and 'ventouse from ventosus ; compare Toulouse
from Tolosa, are exceptions. Pelouse is Provengal, as also are two of the
others.
^ Doucereux is a softened form of douceureux.
® Pieux and serieux have no place here, see Italian Dictionaries for
pietose, seriose.
^ ACCENTED SUFFIXES. cxix
'^ jectives, becomes //, as mpauvrete, paupertatem; surete, securitatem ; j
cite\ civitatem ; sante\ sanitatem ; bonte\ bonitatem ; fierte, feritatem ; '
heauie, bellitatem ; cherte, caritatem ; loyaule, legalitatem ; naivete,
nativitatem ; royaute, regalitatem.
The i, which in the Latin connects the root with the suffix (as
bon-i-tatem, from bonus, san-i-tatem from sanus), and which
disappears in French from all words derived directly from the Latin
(as bonte, sante), reappears as e in derivatives formed from French
words at first hand with no corresponding Latin words : thus from
gai comes gai-e-te ; from souverain, souverain-e-ie ; from sal, leger,
ancien, net, sal-e-te', leger-e^te', ancienn-e-ti, nett-e-ie^,
§ 231. Onem. Substantives derived by help of this suffix in Latin
are of many kinds of meaning : thus they designate animals, as
falco, pavo, leo, capo ; persons, as latro ; things, as carbo, pulmo,
sapo. It becomes on in French : as faucon, falconem ; paon, pa-
vonem ; lion, leonem ; chapon, caponem. ; larron, latronem ; charbon,
carbonem ; poumon, pulmonem. ; savon, saponem. The French
language uses this suffix to reinforce such Latin primitives as had
not enough strength to stand by themselves: thus from mentum,
talus, piscis, ren, ericius, glutus, it formed mentonem *, talonem *,
piscionem *, renionem *, ericionem *, glutonem., whence menton,
talon, poisson, rognon, he'risson, glouton. By analogy have come such
words as jambe, jambon ; coche, cochon ; pied, pieton ; friper, fripon ;
souiller, souillon ; jurer, juron ; plonger, plongeon ; boucher, bouchon ;
manche, manchon ; pierre, perron; char, charron ; virer, aviron ;
ceinture, ceinturon ; chaudron, formerly chauderon, from chaudiere ?
or chaud, compare laidron ; chevron, chevre ; clair, clairon ; fleur,
fleuron ; tendre, tendron. In the words buche, bUch-er-on ; chape,
chap-er-on ; forge, forg-er-on ; laid, laid-er-on ; lys, li-r-on ; mouche,
mouch-er-on ; mousse, mouss-er-on ; puce, puc-er-on ; quart, quart-
er-on; vigne, vign-er-on^, the suffix is strengthened by an inter-
calated er.
The French language similarly employs on in the formation of
dii^inutives : as aigle, aiglon ; chat, chaton ; lievre, levron ; rat, raton ;
cruche, cruchon; sable, sablon; Marie, Marion.
This diminutive particle is often strengthened by the insertion
of (i) ?■// whence carpe, carp-ill-on ; barbe,barb-ill-on; cotte, cot-ill-on ;
croix, crois-ill-on ; dur, dur-ill-on ; moine, moin-ill-on ; negre, ne'gr-
ill-on ; poste, post-ill-on ; tdter, tat-ill-on ; ecouv-ill-on, from O. Fr.
^ Mechancete comes not from mechant, but from O. Fr. tnechance (derived
from mechant, Wke Jouissance from Jouissant, or puissance from puissant^.
'^ In imitation of this suffix in eron, the le
the Latin bibere the barbarous word biberon.
cxx INTRODUCTION.
/couve; grape, grap-ill-on^ : or (ii), iche, whence harh-ich-on, corn-
tch-on,/ol-ich-on, from the primitives barbe, corne,/ol.
We may add to this list substantives in ionem, such as magon,
macionem * ; oignon, iinionem ; soupgon, suspicionem, &c. By analogy
there have been formed from Latin substantives the following words :
champion, campionem * from campus ; argon, arcionem * from arcus ;
chevron, caprionem * from capra ; limagon, limacionem* from Umax ;
compagnon, companionem * from cum-panis ; oison, aucionem * from
auea '^ ; /cusson, scutionem * from scutiim ; troncon, truncionem *
from truncus ; whence lampion, lampe,
§ 232. Tionem, sionem. This suffix must not be confounded with
§ 231 ; it is joined to the supine to form abstract substantives denoting
the action expressed by the verb: thus from press-um, sta-t-um,
comparat-um, m.ess-um, supines of premere, stare, comparare,
metere, came press-io (the act of pressing) ; stat-io (the act of stand-
ing still) ; comparat-io (the act of comparing) ; mess-io (the act
of reaping) '.
These suffixes become gon * infagon, factionem ; legon, lectionem ;
poingon, punctionem. ; rangon, redemptionem. ; sugon, suctionem :
sson in boisson, bibitionemi * ; moisson, m.essionem. ; cuisson, coctionem. ;
e'cusson, ^cutionem; frisson, frictionem; nourrisson, nutritionem ;
cresson, cretionem * : son, with hard s, in chanson, cantionem : son,
with soft s, in poison, potionem ; raison, rationem ; tison, titionem ;
trahison, traditionem ; cargaison, carricationem. * ; f oison, fusionem ;
liaison., ligationem ; livraison, ligationem ; venaison, venationem.
^ Take care not to confound with these derivatives in illon such words as
'vermill-on, aiguill-on, corhill-on, guen'tll-on, tortill-on, tourill-on, echant'tll-on^
goupill-on, ohill-on, which come from the primitives 'vermeil, aiguille, cor-
beille, guenille, tortille, tourelle, echantil, O. Fr., gbupily O. Fr., oisel, O. Fr. by
simple addition of the suffix on.
^ Oison does not come from oie, for it would have been oyon, not oison,
Qora^diTQ joyeux from Joie.
* A certain number of these substantives had taken a concrete significa-
tion even in the Latin : thus potio passed from its first sense of ' ^e
act of drinking ' to that of ' the thing drunk,' a potion, draught ; m.ansio,
first ' the act of remaining,' became ' a place of continuance,' habitation,
mansion ; ligatio, * the act of binding,' became a ligature, a bond. In
imitation of the Latin, the French language also gave to many of these sub-
stantives a concrete sense : tonsionem, cantionem, venationem, prehen-
sionem, clausionem*, bibitionem*, sationem, originally 'the act of
clipping,' &c., became toison, chanson, -venaison, prison, cloison, boisson, saison.
In this case the concrete substantive is often masculine, whereas the abstract
was feminine; as in^owow, potionem; «o«rmjo«, nutritionem ; cresson, cre-
tionem * ; poingon, punctionem ; sugon, suctionem. Similarly ele-ve, the
concrete result of the act of education, is masculine in its concrete sense.
* The learned form is tion for tionem ; potion, potionem ; faction, fac-
tionem ; and sion, sionem ; pression, pressionem ; illusion, illusionem.
ACCENTED SUFFIXES. cxxi
Numerous French substantives have been formed analogously,
either from verbs in I'r, B-S guerzson from gueri'r ; garmson ivova garnir ;
or from verbs in er, as demangeaison from demanger ; echauffaison
from echaiiffer ; fauchaison from faucher ; flotiaison from flatter ; or
from verbs in re, as pendaison from pendre.
§ 233. Torius, sorius. Substantives in tor, sor (see § 33), denoting
the name of the agent, have produced Latin adjectives in torius,
sorius, which indicate a quality proper to the action accomplished by
the agent; as oratorius from orator; laudatorius from laudator^.
The neuter of these adjectives was early employed as a substantive,
and usually denoted the place of residence of the agent, or the
instrument that hi uses ; as praetorium from praetor ; dormitorium |
from dormitor ; auditorium, dolatorium. These newer words,
already frequent under the Empire, became exceedingly numerous
at a later time, especially in ecclesiastical and scholastic Latin ;
as purgatorium, refectorium, laboratorium, observatorium., &c. i
This suffix becomes oir ^ ; dortoir, dorm.itorium. ; pressoir, presso-
rium; ^<9/(9?r^, dolatoria * ; /<:rz'/(9z'r^, scriptoria *.
There are many French derivatives, masculine and feminine; as
parler, parloir ; arroser, arrosoir ; compter, comptoir ; trotter, trottoir ;
tirer, iiroir ; raser, rasoir ; battre, hattoir ; abattre, abattoir ; eteindre,
e'teignoir ; balancer, balangoire ; mdcher, mdchoire ; e'cumer, /cumoire ;
nager, nageoire ; manger, mangeoire ^.
§ 234. Tudinem. This suffix, which had been reduced to tuma
in common Latin, in which we fi*d costuma for consuetu-
dinem, becomes tume^-, as coutume, consuetudinem ; amertume,
amaritudinem.
§ 235. Quin. This suffix, which usually gives a bad sense,^„Qf
Gerrnapic origin, from the Old Netherland Mn^ ; as bouquin from
boecMn rmannequin from mannekin ; brodequin from brosekin. Hence
also casaquin from casaque^. This suffix, which is almost barren in
French, has been more largely developed in the Picard patois, which
uses it for new forms, like verquin, a little verre ; painequin, a bad
little loaf (pain) ; Pierrequin, poor little Pierre, &c.
^ On this model the bad form dinatoire has been formed from diner.
^ For letter-changes, see § 84.
^ Derivatives of inchoative verbs insert the particle iss, as rotissoire from
rotir ; polissoir from polir.
* The learned form is ude ; as aptitude, aptitudo * ; mansuetude, man-
suetudo ; whence the modern forms platitude irom plat, &c.
^ This suffix kin answers to the German diminutive chen. %
^ We must not add to these words arlequin, faquin, baldaquin, pasquin^
for they come from the Italian; nor mesquin, which is Spanish; nor
palanquin, sequin, Oriental words ; nor requin, whose origin is unknown.
cxxii INTRODCUTION.
§ 236. Tura, sura. This sufRx denotes the result of the action
indicated by the verb, just as tor, sor (see § 233) denotes the name of
the agent. It becomee Jure, ure, as in ?nesure, mensura; peinture,
pictura; niasure, mansura; roture, ruptura; chevelure, formerly
cheveleUre, capillatura ; armure, formerly armeilre, armatura, &c.
On this model have been formed many substantives, drawn originally
from verbs; as aller, allure; parer, parure ; bouler, bouture ; serrer,
serrure ; blesser, blessure ; paitre \ pdture ; then, by analogy, from
adjectives ; as vert, verdure ; confit, confiture ; froid, froidure ; ordure
from O. Fr. <7r^/ and from substantives: voile, voilure ; coP, en-
colure.
§ 237. Ucus, uca become u and ue ^ : as fe'tu, fettucus * * ; laitue,
lactuca ; verrue, verruca ; charrue, carruca ; massue, maxuca * ;
iortue, tortuca *.
§ 238. Undus becomes ond; as rond, formerly roond, from ro-
(t)undus ^.
§ 239. Unus becomes un; 2JS>jeun, formerly /<?««, from je(j)unus.
§ 240. Umus becomes our^ ; as jour, diumus; aubour, al-
bumum.
CHAPTER II.
, Atonic Suffixes.
§ 241. *A11 these suffixes disappear in the French, and are con-
sequently useless for the purpose of producing new derivatives ; they
have however recovered their place from the time that men utterly
lost sight of the genius of the language, and became ignorant of the
rule of accent '^.' Thus people began to use such words as portique,
fragile, rigide, instead of porche, /rile, roide, from porticus, frdgilis,
rigidus.
In considering these Latin atonic suffixes we are bound strictly
^ As we have seen, § 35, substantives formed from inchoative verbs
intercalate the particle iss : as bouffir, bouff-iss-ure ; moisir, mois-iss-ure ;
brunir, brun-iss-ure ; meurtrir, meurtr-iss-ure ; fietrir,fietr-iss-ure.
^ Brauoure does not come from bra-ve, for then its form would have
been brwvure, but is drawn directly from the Italian brwvura.
^ The learned form is uc ; as caduc from caducus.
* From sa(b)ucus * has come the O. Fr. seii, whence the derivative
setiereau (compare poetereau from poete'), now contracted to sureau.
^ The Jearned form is also ond; as 'vagabond from vagabundus.
^ For the changes of urnus into our, see § 87. The learned form is
urne ; as diurne, diurnus ; nocturne, nocturnus.
■^ G. Paris, Accent latino p. 92.
ATONIC SUFFIXES. cxxiii
to reject every word that has been introduced into the French
language since the period of its natural formation.
§ 242. Eus, ius, Fr. ge, che. Strange, extraneus ; lange, laneus ;
deluge, diluvium ; tinge, lineus ; proche, propius ; sage, sapius ;
singe, simius ; orge, hordeum ; rouge, rubeus ; auge, alvea ; songe^
somniuin ; Li^ge, Leodium ; Mauheuge, Malbodium ; cierge, cereus ^.
For the change of eus, ius into ge, che, see Historical Grammar^
p. 66.
§ 243. Ea, Fr. ge, gne. Cage, cavea, grange, granea ; vigne,
vinea; ligne, linea; teigne, tinea. For the change of ea into ge,
see Historical Grammar, p. 66.
§ 244. la, Fr. ge, che, ce ; or it disappears altogether. Vendange,
vindemia ; angoisse, angustia ; cigogne, eiconia ; tige, tibia ; seche,
sepia ; sauge, salvia ; envie, invidia ; grace, gratia ; histoire, historia ;
Bourgogne, Burgundia ; France, Francia ; Grece, Graecia ; Bretagne,
Britannia ^. For the change of ia into ge, see Historical Grammar ^
p. 65.
§ 245. It-ia, Fr, esse. Justesse, justitia ; mollesse,-m.d)i^\\ii.&,', par esse,
pigi^itia; tristesse, tristitia. French derivatives: ivresse, politessey
tendresse.
§ 246. Icem (from ex, ix, represented in French only by ce, se, ge) :
herse, herpicem ; puce, pulicem ; juge, judicem; pouce, pollicem;
ponce, pumicem ; e'corce, cortieem ^.
§ 247. Icus, a, um, Fr. che, ge. P or che, porticus ; manche,
manica; serge, serica; dimanche, dominica; Saintonge, Santonica,
forge (O. Yy. faurge), fabrica; per che, pertica; piege, pedica*.
§ 248. Aticus is a suffix formed with icus, Fr. age. Voyage (O.Fr.
viatage), viaticum ; fromage, formaticum ; volage, volaticum ;
ombrage, umbraticum; ramage, ramaticum; message, missaticum ;
sauvage, silvaticus ^.
^ Learned form e, as igne, igneus.
^ Learned form ie, as chimie, philosophie, symphonie, Australie. But
we must not confound this termination with the proper French derivatives,
in ie, as felonie {felon), tromperie {tromper), &c., which are popular and
very numerous.
^ Learned form ice : calice, ealicem.
* Learned form ique : portique, porticus ; fabrique, fabrica ; 'viatique,
viaticum.
^ Silva in Old French became sel've, sawve, which, as a common noun,
is lost, but survives in certain names of places, as sawve-Satnt-Benoit, silva-
S.-Benedicti. From silva came silvaticus, whence sawv-age, O. Fr.
sel'vatge. Nothing but a complete misunderstanding or ignorance of the
laws of the formation of the French language could have ever allowed
people to derive sawvage from solivagus. This word could only have
produced in French the form seulige.
cxxiv INTR0DUCT70N.
Hence come French derivatives : mesurage, ladourage, alliage,
arrosage, &c. It has been said that these words come from a Low
Latin suffix in -agium (as message from messagium), homage from
homagium). But though messagium certainly exists, it is far from
being the parent of the Fr. message ; on the contrary, it is nothing
but the Fr. message latinised by the clergy, at a time when no one
knew either the origin of the word (missaticum) or the nature of
the suffix which formed it.
§ 249. Idus disappears in French. Pale, pallidus ; net, nitidus ;
chaud, calidus (Low Lat. caldus) ; tiede, tepidus ; roide^ rigidus ;
sade, sapidus ; whence maussade^ male sapidus ^.
§ 250. nis, Fr. le. Humble, humilis \ faille (O. Yr.floible), flebilis ;
douille, ductilis ; meuhle, mobilis ; frele, fragilis ; grele, gracilis "-.
§ 251. Inus disappears in French. Page, pagina ; jaune, galb-
inus ; femme, femina ; frine, fraxinus ; dame, domina ; charme,
carpinus ; coffre, cophinus ^.
§ 252. Itus, Fr. te. Vente, vendita; rente, reddita; dette, debita;
perte, perdita; qu^te, quaesita.
§253. Olus, Fr. le. Diable, diabolus; apStre (O. Fr. apostle),
apostolus.
The compound suffixes iolus, eolus, dissyllabic (io, eo) in Latin,
were contracted into a long penultimate in the seventh century, io, eo,
thenceforwards accented iolus, eolus, whence came the French ter-
minations ieul, euil, iol : i\ms filleul, filiolus; chevreuil, eapreolus ;
linceul, linteolum ; glaieul, gladiolus ; rossignol, lusciniolus ; aieul,
aviolus.
§ 254. ITlus, Fr. le. Table, tabula ; fable, fabula ; amble, ambula;
peuple, populus ; hieble, ebulum ; seille, situla ; sangle, cingulum ;
ongle, ungula ; chapitre, capitulum ; merle, merula ; epingle, spinula ;
ensouple, insubulura *.
The following suffixes are formed from ulus : —
§255. I. Aculus, Fr. ail. Gouvernail, gubemaculum ; tetiaille,
tenaculum ; soupirail, suspiraculum. French derivatives : travail,
fermail, e'ventail, &c.
§ 256. 2. Eculus, Fr. il. Goupil, vulpecula. In Old French
this word meant a fox, and survives still in the diminutive goupillon,
a sprinkler, originally made of a fox's tail.
^ Learned form ide: r'tgide, rigidus; safide, sapidus; ar'ide, aridus,
&c.
2 Learned form He: mobile, m.obilis ; ductile, ductilis ; fr agile ^
fragilis, &c.
^ Learned form ine : machine, machina, &c.
* Learned form ule : cellule, cellula; calcul, calcTilus; funambule,
funambulus.
VERBAL SUFFIXES. cxxv
§ 257. 3. Iculus, Fr. ez7. Abeille, apicula ; orieil (O. Fr. art-
eil), articulum; sommeil, somniculus * ; soleil, soliculus*; oreille^
auricula ; corneilk, comicula ; ouaille, ovicula ; vermeil, verm-
iculus ; aiguille, acicula.
§ 268. 4. Uculus, Fr. ouil. Fenouil, feniculum ; grenouille, ran-
ucula ; verroiL (O. Fr. verrouil, surviving in verrouiller), veruculum ;
genou (O. Fr. genouil, surviving in agenouiller) , genuculum.
Vowels which follow the tonic syllable disappear in French;
consequently the learned forms of atonic suffixes, such as fragile,
mobile, &c., from fragilis, mobilis, &c., are incorrect, seeing that
they all retain the vowel's after the tonic syllable, and in fact displace
the Latin accent. One may indeed lay it down as a general rule
that, in the case of Latin atonic suffixes, all French words of learned
origin break the law of Latin accefituation.
SECTION IV.
Verbal Suffixes.
CHAPTER I.
Accented.
§259. Aseo, Fr. «z> / eseo, Fr. ois ; isco, Fr. is. Nais, nasco';
pais, pasco ; parais, paresco ; crois, cresco, &c.
§ 260. Ascere, Fr. ailre, O. Fr. aistre. Naitre, nascere; paitre^
pascere.
§ 261. Ico, igo, Fr. ie. Lie, ligo ; chdtie, castigo ; nie, nego, &c.
§ 262. Illo, Fr. lie. Chancele, grommele, harcele, &c.
§ 263. Are, Fr. er. Peser, pensare ; chanter, cantare, &c.
§ 264. Tiare, Fr. cer, ser. These are forms peculiar to the common
Latin : tracer, tractiare ; sucer, suctiare ; chasser, captiare.
CHAPTER II.
Atonic Suffixes.
§265. Ico, Fr. che, ge. fuge, judico; mdche, mastico; venge,
vendico ; ronge, rumigo ; charge, carrico, &c. The learned form is
ique : revendique, revendico ; mastique, mastico.
^ We have seen, Historical Grammar, p. 119, that all deponent verbs
became active in form in the Low Latin.
cxxvi INTRODUCTION.
§ 266. Ere, Fr. re. Sourdre, surgere ; moudre, molere ; tordre^
torquere ; ardre, ardere. This Old French verb, which signified
* to burn,' remains in the participle ardent, and substantive ardeur.
§ 267. lo disappears in French. Depouille, despolio.
§ 268. ITlo, Fr. le. Moule, modulo; comble, cumulo; tremble,
tremulo ; trouble, turbulo.
Under ulo we may put : —
§ 269. I. Aculo, Fr. atlle, as in tiraille, criaille, &c.
§ 270. 2. Iculo, Fr. z'lle. Fouille, fodiculo ; sautille, tortille, &c.
§ 271. 3. Uculo, Fr. ouille. Chatouille, bredouille, barbouille, &c.
SECTION V.
Diminutive Suffixes.
These are sixteen in number.
§ 272. Aceus, Fr. ace, asse. Villace, grimace {grimer), populace,
paperasse, &c.
§ 273. Iceus, Fr. use, iche. Coulisse {couler), pelisse {peau), caniche.
§ 274. Oceus, Fr. oche. Epinoche, pioche.
§ 275. Uceus, Fr. uche. Peluche, guenuche.
§ 276. Aculus. See above, § 255.
§ 277. Aldus. See above, § 195.
§ 278. Alia, Fr. aille. Betail, bestialia; poitrail, pectoralia;
merveille, mirabilia ; portail, portalia ; canaille, viuraille, bataille,
&c.
§ 279. Ardus. See above, §§ 175, 196.
§ 280. Aster, Fr. dtre. See above, §§ 178, 199.
§ 281. At, et, ot. (i) At : aiglat, louvat, verrat. (2) Et, ette :
sachet (sac), cachet {coq), mollet {niol), maisonnette, alouetie. (3) Ot,
otte : billot {bilk), cachot (cache), brulot (brtUe), Hot (tie), &c.
§ 282. Ellus, illus, Fr. eau, el, elle. Agneau, agnellus ; jumeau,
gemellus ; anneau, annellus ; icuelle, scutella ; vaisseau, vascellus ;
oiseau, avicollus.
§ 283. Onem, ionem. See above, § 231.
§ 284. Ulus. See above, § 254.
ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY
OF THE
FRENCH LANGUAGE.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.
abl.
ablative.
Goth.
Gothic,
O.S.
Old Saxon.
abbrev.
abbreviation.
Gr.
Greek,
partic.
participle, parti-
accus.
accusative.
Gram.
Grammatical,
cipial.
adj.
adjective.
grammar.
Pers.
Persian.
adv.
adverb.
Heb.
Hebrew.
Pharm,
Pharmacopoeia.
Agric.
Agricultural.
hist.
historical.
Physiol.
Physiological.
Ageb.
Algebraical.
Hist. Gram. Historical Gram-
Port.
Portuguese.
Anat.
Anatomical.
mar.
poss.pron.
possessive pro-
Ar.
Arabic.
Hortic.
horticultural.
noun.
Archit.
Architectural.
Icel.
Icelandic.
p.p.
past participle.
A.S.
Anglo-Saxon.
Ichth.
Ichthyological.
prep.
preposition.
Bot.
Botanical.
introd.
introduced.
prim.
primitive.
Cat.
Catalan.
It.
Italian.
proncd.
pronounced.
Carol.
Carolingian.
Kymr.
Kymric.
Prov.
Proven9al.
cent.
century.
L. or Lat.
Latin.
q,v.
quod vide, see.
Chem.
Chemical.
lit.
literally.
Rhet,
Rhetorical.
Chron.
Chronological.
Lomb.
Lombardic,
Scand.
Scandinavian.
Class.
Classical.
M.H.G.
Middle High
Schol. Lat,
Scholastic Latin.
compd.
compound, com-
German.
Slav.
Slavonian,
pounded.
Math.
Mathematical.
Surg.
Surgical,
Conch.
Conchological.
Med.
Medical.
sf-
substantive femi-
contr.
contraction.
Merov.
Merovingian or
nine.
contrd.
contracted.
Merwing,
/.//.
plural substan-
cp.
compare.
Met.
Metallurgical.
tive feminine.
Dan.
Danish.
metaph.
metaphorical.
sm.
substantive mas-
Der. or deriv. derivative.
metaphorically.
culine.
der.
derived.
Min.
Mineralogical.
smf.
substantive of
dim.
diminutive.
mod. Fr.
modem French.
common gender.
Eccles.
Ecclesiastical.
MS.
Manuscript.
sm. pi.
plural substan-
Entom.
Entomological.
MSS.
Manuscripts.
tive masculine.
etymol.
etymological.
Mus.
Musical.
Sp.
Spanish.
Fr.
French.
Naut.
Nautical.
Theol.
Theological.
frequent.
frequentative.
Neth.
Netherlandish.
Turk.
Turkish.
Gael.
Gaelic.
O.Fr.
Old Frenth.
subst.
substantive.
Geogr.
Geographical.
O.H.G.
Old High Ger-
V.
verb.
Geol.
Geological.
man.
va.
verb active.
Geom.
Geometrical.
Ornith.
Ornithological.
Venet.
Venetian.
Germ.
Germanic, Ger-
0. Scand.
Old Scandi-
vn.
verb neuter.
man.
navian.
VpT.
verb reciprocal.
= signifies * having
become,' as
'e = a,' signifies 'e
having become a.'
When, in constructing a geological map, we xvish to distinguish the strata which lie one
above another, and form, as it were, the history of the earth, we are wont to mark them out
by the use of different shades or colours ; so, in distinguishing the two great layers of the
French language, we shall mark them off from one another by employing two different kinds
of type. Thus, the older or popular stratum, which is anterior to the Eleventh Century, and
forms the main part and foundation of the language, will in this Dictionary be denoted by
capital letters, as in the case q/" ABBA YE; and the newer or non-popular stratum, the work
of the learned, which comprises all words borrowed straight from the classical languages or
from foreign modern tongues, will be denoted by thick Roman type, as Aberration ; and
again of these, the words borrowed directly from modern tongues will be distinguished from
those taken from the classical languages by being printed in thick type, spaced, with f pre-
fixed, as f Abrieot. The sections referred to, as ' § 53,' are those of the Introduction,
to which the student is requested to turn.
(
A, prep, to ; It. a and ad, from L. ad, which
took successively in barbarous Latin the
three meanings ( = avec, with ; =pour, for ;
= d, to) which have descended to the Fr. a.
Thus, ad = avec is found in the Lex SaHca
(6th cent.) ed. Pardessus, p. I2i: 'Si quis
unum vasum ad apis furaverit, sohdos
XV. culpabilis iudicetur.' In a less popu-
larly worded copy of the same law we find
' Si quis unum vas cum apibus,' etc.,
proving that ad was used as =cum. Hence
comes the use of a, = avec in such phrases
as chandelier a, tranche, fusil a aiguille.
This prep, plays an important part in the
inflexion of the language, and in the forma-
tion of words. In inflexion, ad with the
accus. takes the place of the Latin dative.
This tendency, found in germ in classical
Latinity (as in ' quod apparet ad agri-
colas,' Terence ; ' hunc ad carnificem
dabo,' Plautus ; ' pauperem ad ditem
dari,' Terence), and found also in several
other languages (as in modern Greek, which
uses the accus. with €ts = ad for the lost
dative, and as in the English use of to), is
developed very strongly in Merovingian
Latin, and forms the dative in all the
Romance languages. Thus, for example, in a
Diploma of a.d. 693, Briquigny, ii. 431, we
have ' Sed veniens ad eo placito ; * and
in a Donation of a.d. 713, id. ii. 437, ' Ergo
donavi ad monasterium ;' in a Donation
of A.D, 671, id. ii. 154, ' Idcirco dono ad
sacrosanctum monasterium ;' in Markulf.
A-PP. 58, ' Mihi contigit quod ego . . .
caballum ad hominem aliquem in furto
subdixi;' in the Formulae Andegav. 28,
' Nam terra ad illo homine nunquam fossa-
dasset.'
Ad becomes a by dropping d, a process
which had already taken place before con-
sonants in Merovingian Latin ; thus, in the
8th cent, we find in Markulf. Formul. i.
37i ' a quo placito veniens ; * a passage
found in another part of Markulfus (Ap-
pendix 38) in the form ' ad quod pi.
veniens.' A Donation of a.d. 739 has
' In portionem quam a liberto nostro
dedimus,' Brequigny, ii. 370. — Der. au,
aux, q.v.
ABAISSER, va. to abase. Sp. abaxar. It. ab-
bassare, from L. adbassare, compd. of ad
and bassare, der. from bassus, see bas.
Adbassare, by db = bb (§ 168) and
bb = b, becomes abassare : ' Molendina,
quae sunt infra fossam civitatis, abassen-
tur medietate unius brachii rationis ' (Char-
ter of a.d. 1 192, Muratori, Ant. It. v. 87).
Abassare becomes abaisser by are = er
(§ 263), a = ai (§ 54), and by continuance
of b, ss, and initial a. — Der. abaissement
(§ 225), rabaisser (Hist. Gram. p. 179).
ABANDON, sm. abandonment, giving up, un-
constraint. In 13th cent, in the form
a bandon in Marie de France, i. 488, which
shows that the word is formed by a com-
paratively modern junction of the prep, a
with O. Fr. subst. bandon, = permission,
liberty, authorisation, a word found as late
as the 1 6th cent, in R. Estienne's Diet.
Fr.-Latin (a.d. 1549): Bandon, indul-
gentia, licentia. Permettre et donner
bandon a aulcun, indulge re. Mettre sa
forest a bandon was a feudal law phrase in
the 13th cent. = m^//re sa foret a permis-
sion, i. e. to open it freely to any one
for pasture or to cut wood in ; hence the
later sense of giving up one's rights for a
time, letting go, leaving, abandoning. For
this change of sense see § 12. The words
d bandon were joined as early as the 13th
cent. ; the form abandon appearing in Beau-
manoir, 43, 13.
The O. Fr. bandon, like all terms of
feudal custom, is of Germ, origin, derived
from feudal L. bandum, an order, decree :
' Tunc nos demum secundum canouicam
auctoritatem ferula excommunicationis et
B
A BA QUE — A BEILLE.
band! nostri constrinximus praelibatum
Ermengandum comitcm,' says an Excom-
munication of Gregory V, a.d. 998 (Concil.
Rom., Baluze, i. 6). Bandum represents
Dan. hand, an order, decree. — Der. aban-
rfonner.
Abaque, sm. an abacus; from L. abacus.
ABASOURDIR, va. to stun, deafen; an ill-
formed and corrupt form (§ 172), of a type
abassourdir, compd. of ab and assourdir.
See sourd.
ABATARDIR, va. to abase, corrupt ; see
bdlard. — Der. afta/arrfissement (§ 225).
ABATIS, sm. a demolition, felling (of trees).
In the 1 2 th cent, abateis in the Chanson
d'Antioche 6, 9,^, from L. abbatere* (see
abattre) through a deriv. abbaticius*.
For abbat = a6a/ see abattre, for -icium
= -eis = -is see under § 214.
ABAT-JOUR, sm. a trunk-light, reflector,
lampshade. See abattre and jour.
ABATTRE, va. to beat down, knock down ;
from L. abbattere, found in 6th cent,
in the Germanic Laws : * Si quis hominem
de furca abbattere presumpserit ' (Lex.
, Sal. Nov. 273). Abbattere is compd. of
ab and battere (see batlre). Abbattere
by bb = b and tt = t (§ 168), becomes
abatere, contrd. (§ 51) to abat're, whence
O. Fr. abatre (in nth cent., in the Chanson
de Roland, 267), wrongly afterwards written
abbattre by the Latinists of the Renais-
sance (1604, in Nicot-s Diet.), in order to
make the word look more like its Latin
parent. In the 17th cent, the older and
correct orthography was resumed in the
words abatage and abatis ; but abattre un-
fortunately kept the tt. — Der. abati% (q. v.),
abatage (§ 242).
ABBAYE, sf. an abbey ; from L. abbatia
(in St. Jerome). Abbatia, by bb =b, and
t = d (§ 117), early became abadia: 'Ilia
abadia de Rubiaco una medietas rema-
neat,' says a will of a.d. 961 (Vaissette,
ii. p. 108). Aba(d)iani becomes abe'ie
(nth cent., Lois de Guillaume le Con-
querant, l) by dropping d (§ 1 17), by
a. = e (§ 54), and persistence of initial a
and i (§ 69), and by final am = « (§ 54).
Abeie is written in 13th cent, abate; in
1 6th cent, abbaye.
ABBjfi, sm. an abbot, head of a religious house ;
from L. abbatem, a word introduced in the
last ages of the Roman Empire by Christian
writers, who had borrowed it from Syriac
abba, a father. For change of sense see
§ 5 2. Abbatem becomes abe (nth cent.,
Chanson de Roland, 209) by bb =b (§ 168),
atein = J (§ 230), and continuance of initial
a. For later change of ah6 to abbe sec
abattre.
ABBESSE, sf. an abbess. It. abbadessa,
from L. abbatissa, a deriv. in -issa
(§ 222) from abbatem, see abbd; found
in an epitaph, a.d. 569 (Muratori, A. 429,
3) : ' Hie requiescit in somno paucis lustiiiu
abbatissa.' Abba(t)issa, by dropping t
(§ 117), and bybb = b (§ 168), a = e (§ 54),
issa = esse (§ 222), and continuance of
initial a, becomes O. Fr. abeesse (13th cent.,
Roman de la Rose, 8800), whence, later,
abesse (§ 1 1 7), For the change from abesse
to abbesse see abattre.
Abcfes, sm. an abcess ; from L. abcessus.
Abdication, sf. abdication; from L. abdi-
cationem.
Abdiquer, va. to abdicate; from L. ab-
dicare.
Abdomen, sm. the abdomen, stomach ; from
L. abdomen.
Ab6c6daire, sm. a spelling-book ; from L.
abecedarium. For arium = aire see
§ 197, note I.
t Abe ill e, sf. a bee; a word introd. towards
the 15th cent. ; found in 1460 in a letter of
remission quoted by Ducange; from Prov.
abelha, which from L. apicvQa, Plin. N. H.
2, 21, 21: properly a little bee (for enlarge-
ment of meaning see § 13). Jnst as we
early find abis for apis (' de furtis abium.,'
Lex Salica, ed. Pardessus, p. 163), so api-
cula in Merov. Lat, becomes abicula,
whence Prov. abelha, just as auricula,
ovicula, corbicula, became Prov. au-
relha, ovelha, corhelha. That abeille is not
a true Fr. word derived directly from Lat.
is shown by the fact that in Fr. the Lat. p
never stops at h, but always descends to v
(§ III), while in Prov. it always stops at
h ; consequently if apicula, abicula, had
directly produced a Fr. word, it would have
taken the form aveille, by p = v (§ in),
icxil& = eille (§ 257), and by the continu-
ance of initial a. This true Fr. form
is not imaginary ; it is to be found in the
Diet, of R. Estienne (1549): Aveille,
mousch a miel, mot duquel on use en Tou-
raine et en Anjou. This form, which thus,
even in 1549, was restricted to one or two
western provinces, entirely disappeared
when apiculture was localised in and re-
stricted to Languedoc and Provence, and
was replaced, as was to be expected, by a
form brought from the district in which the
ABERRA TION—ABOVER.
, production of honey and care of bees was
chiefly attended to.
i Aberration, s/". aberration; properly of stars,
I tl^e figurative meaning being later ; from
L. aberrationem.
i ABfiTIR, va. to brutalise. See bete and Hist.
Gram. p. 177.
i Abhorrer, va. to abhor, detest ; from L.
abhorrere.
' ABIME, sm. an abyss. Sp. abismo, from
L. abyssimus *, a deriv. of abyssus,
with superlative termination -issimus,
found suffixed to other Lat. subst., as ocul-
-issimus, domin-issimus, marking the
highest degree of intensity ; thus abys-
simus signifies the deepest depth. Abys-
simum, contr. to abyss'mum. (§ 51),
becomes abisme (12th cent., St. Bernard's
Sermons, p. 167) by persistence of a and m,
and by y = £ (§ loi), ss = s (§ 168), and
tun = e. For the very unusual continuance
of b see § 113. For abisme = abime see
§ 148. — Der. abimer, to hurl into an abyss,
thence to ruin, damage, thence to spoil (as
in un ckapeau abime), by a reduction of
meaning, see § 13; found also in gene and
ennui, q. v. This sense is later than the
17th cent., for the Diet, of the Acad., 1694,
recognises only the etymological meaning.
Abject, adj. abject; from L. abjectus. —
DtT. abjection (L. abjectionem).
Abjurer, va. to abjure, renounce ; from L.
abjurare. — Der. abjurztion (L. abjur-
ationem).
Ablatif, sm. the ablative case ; from L.
ablativum. For final v=/ see § 142.
Ablation, sf. ablation (Med.); from L.
ablationem.
ABLE, sm. a bleak (Ichth.) ; from L. albula,
properly a little white fish, from the adj. al-
bulus (in Catullus, 29 19), which is probably
the fish called alburnus by Ausonius (an-
other derivative of albus); 'Et albiirnos
praedam puer ilibus hamis' (Mosella, 126).
The albula got its name from its whiteness,
just as the rotiget is so called from being
partly red. Albula is found in the Lat.-Gr.
glossaries, Albula, iKTapa, which is a kind
of little fish. In the Schola Salernita, d.
Moreau, p. 80, we find ' Lucius, et perca
et saxaulis, albula, tinea.' Albula,
losing 1 by dissimilation (§ 169), becomes
abula, found in a MS. account of a.d.
1239, quoted by Ducange (s. v.) : 'Decano
Turon. ille qui capit abulas, de dono
ad unum batellum emendum xl. solid.
Tur.' Ab(u)lam (§51) contr. to ab'lam
becomes able by aTO. = e, and continuance of
bl, and of initial a. — Der. aWette (§ 281).
ABLETTE, sf. a bleak. See able.
Ablution, sf. ablution, washing; from L.
ablutionem.
Abnegation, sf abnegation, renunciation,
sacrifice (of self ) ; from L. abnegationem.
ABOI, verbal sm. barking, baying. Aboi,
which expresses the bark of a dog (aboie-
ment is the present word), remains in the
Fr. language in the phrase etre aux abois.
The stag is said to be aux abois when he is
hard pressed by the dogs, and close followed
by their cry. This hunting-term has taken
a figurative sense, and etre aux abois now
means ' to be hard pressed,' ' at one's wits'
end,' ' at bay.'
ABOIEMENT, sm. barking. See aboyer.
Abolir, «/a. to abolish; from L. abolere.
For e = i see § 59. — Der. aSo/issement
(§ 225, note 4).
Abolition, sf. abolition; from L. abo-
litionem.
Abominable, adj. abominable; from L.
abominabilis. Forabilis = aWesee§250.
Abomination sf. abomination ; from L.
abominationem.
Abondamment, adv. abundantly; from
abondant, q. v.
Abondance, sf abundance ; from L. abun-
dantia. For u = o see § 98; for antia
= ance § 244.
Abondant, adj. abundant; from L. abun-
dantem. For u = o see § 98.
Abonder, va. to abound; from L. abun-
dare. — Der. sur abonder.
ABONNER, va. to subscribe, pay a subscrip-
tion ; see bon. — Der. abonnement (§ 225),
abonne (§ 201).
ABORDER, va. to reach shore, to draw nigh
to shore ; see bord. — Der. abord, abordzge,
abordMe (§ 250).
Aborigene, smf an aboriginal, primitive in-
habitant; from L. aborigines.
ABORNER, va. to border on, touch limits of.
See borne.
ABOUCHER, va. to bring together, bring
about an interview (s'aboucher avec quel-
qu'un is lit. to place one mouth to mouth
with another). See bouche.
ABOUTIR, va. to arrive at, end in ; see bout.
ABOYER, va. to bark, bay ; from L. abbau-
bare*, compd. of ad (Hist. Gram. p. 177)
and baubare *. For change from deponent
to active, see Hist. Gram. p. 1 1 9 ; for db = bb
§ 1 68. Abbau(b)are, by bb = 6 ( § 1 68),
loss of second b (§ 113), continuance of
A brEger —a bstinence.
initial a, and by au = o (§ 107), are = er
(§ 54)» became in nth cent, aboer. The law
of balance between the tonic and atonic
vowels, spoken of § 48 etc, here plays an
important part. In I2th cent, il abaie, Le
Livre des Rois, 129; in 13th cent, aboer,
Villehardouin, 109; in 14th cent, abayer,
Oresme, Eth. 205. — Der. aboytuv (§ 227),
aboiement (§ 225). For y = t see § 101.
ABR^GER, va. to abridge, shorten ; from L.
abbreviare, found in Vegetius, Prol. 3,
De Re Mil. : ' Quae me per diversos auc-
tores .... abbreviare iussisti.' Abbre-
viare becomes abbrevjare by consoni-
fication of i (Hist. Gram. p. 65), whence
abreger by bb = 6 (§ 168), vj=j (§ 141),
continuance of initial a, br, e, and j=g,
axe = er. — Der. abrege (§ 201), abregcur,
of which the learned doublet (§ 22) is
abreviateur.
ABREUVER, va. to give to drink, water.
It. abbeverare, from L. adbiberare*, a
compd. of ad and biberare, a deriv. of
bibere ; see breuvage. Adbib(e)rare,
dropping § (§ 52), and assimilating db to
bb (§ 168), becomes abbib'rare, whence
abevrer (13th cent., Floire et Blancheflor,
195), by bb =6 (§ 168), i = e (§ 72),
br = vr (§ 113), are = fir (§ 263), and by
continuance of initial a. Abevrer is in
l6th cent, abrever (Hist, Gram. p. 77) by
transposition, whence finally abreuver. —
Der. abreuvo'iT (§ 183).
Abr^viation, sf. abbreviation; from L.
abbreviationem. See abreger.
ABRI, sm. a shelter ; introd. in 1 2th cent.
(Livre des Rois, 251) from Prov. abric,
Sp. abrigo. Origin unknown.
t Abricot, sm. an apricot (1549, R--Esti-
enne's Diet.) ; introd. from Port, albricoque
(§ 26). — Der. abricotier (§ 193).
ABRITER, va. to shelter (a modern word,
appearing first in 1740, Diet, de I'Academie,
as a special horticult. term : Abrite, terme
de jardinage — ' un espalier bien abrite ') ;
from abri, by euphonic intercalation of t.
There was, up to the 1 8th cent, another
form, abrier, formed direct from abri,
which has been supplanted by abriter: Etifin
le bon Dieu nous abrie, St. Arnaud, Podsies,
iii. 92 (17th cent.), and in 1728, Richelet's
Diet., has Abrier, mettre a I' abri; ne se
dit qu'en riant.
Abrogation, sf. abrogation; from L. abro-
gationem.
Abroger, va. to abrogate, annul ; from L.
abrogare. Der. atro^ation.
Abrupt, adj. abrupt ; from L. abrup-
tus.
Abrutir, va. to brutalise ; see brute. — Der.
a6r?//issement (§ 225).
Abscisse, sf. an abscissa (Math.) ; from L.
abscissa.
Absence, sf. absence; from L. absentia.
For &ntia. = ence see § 244.
Absent, adj. absent; from L. absentem.
Der. absenter (§ 183).
Abside, s/l a vault ; (Archit.); from L. apsi-
dem.
Absinthe, s/". wormwood ; from L. absin-
thium.
Absolu, adj. absolute ; from L. absolutus.
For utus = tt see § 201. — Der. a6so/wment
(§ 225).
Absolution, sf. absolution; from L. abso-
lutionem.
Absorber, va. to absorb; from L. absor-
ber e. — Der. absolvtion (§ 232, note 4).
Absorption, sf. absorption; from L. ab-
sorptionem.
ABSOUDRE, va. to absolve, acquit. It.
assolvere, from L. absolvere. Absol-
v(e)re, contr. regularly (§ 51) to ab-
solv're, drops the v (§ 141), whence
absol're, whence O. Fr. assoldre (nth
cent.. Chanson de Roland, 25) by assimi-
lating bs to ss (§ 168), by changing Ir to
Idr (Hist. Gram. p. 73), and by continuance
of a and o. Assoldre in 12th cent, becomes
assoudre (§ 157); in 13th cent, is recon-
structed into absoudre by the clerks and
lawyers who wished to bring it back to the
Lat. form. But the popular pronunciation
continued in spite of this classical restora-
tion of the b, and we know from Palsgrave
(Eclairc. p. 23) that in 1530 it was still
proncd. assoudre. — Der. absoute, strong
partic. subst. (§ 188), from L. absoluta.
For contr. of abs51(u)ta to absol'ta see
§ 51.
ABSTENIR(S') vpr. to abstain. Sp. abstenir,
from L. abstenere, a common Lat. form
of abstinere. Abstenere becomes aste-
nir (nth cent., Chanson de Roland, 203)
by bs = ss = s (§ 168), by ere = z> (§ 60),
and by continuance of a, t, e, n. In the
14th cent, astenir was reconstructed into
abstenir (§56, note 4) by the clerks and
lawyers. See absoudre.
Abstention, sf. abstention, withholding;
from L. abstentionem.
Abstinence, sf abstinence; from L. ab-
stinentiam. For eutia = ence see
I § 244-
ABSTRAC TION — A CCA BLER.
Abstraction, sf. abstraction ; from L. ab-
stractionem.
Abstraire, va. to abstract, separate ; from
L. abstrahere. For trahere = /ra/re see
§ 135 ; and see traire.
Abstrait, adj. abstract; from L. abstrac-
tus. For ct = 2Vsee § 129.
Absurde, adj. absurd; from L. absurdus.
— Der, absurdite (§ 230).
Absurdity sf. absurdity; from L. absurdi-
tatem.
Abus, sm. an abuse ; from L. abusus. —
Der. abuser (§ 183).
Ablisif, adj. abusive; from L. abusivus.
For iviis = 27see § 223.
ACABIT, sm. a quality of anything (good
or bad). This word originally signified
purchase, and afterwards became limited
to the thing purchased, then to the state
or condition of that thing, lastly to the
qualities of any object whatever. (In the
1 8th cent, it was used only of fruits; the
Diet, of the Academy, 1740, has Acabit, ne
se dit guere que des fruits : ' Des poires d'un
hon acabit.') Acabit is a learned word, a
corrupt form of the feudal L. accapitum,
which in Custom Law signifies a right of
entry (' deinde dono burgos . . . acca-
pita . . .' in a Will of 11 50, Martene,
Anecd. i. 410), and is itself only a bar-
barous compound of the L. caput in the
sense of rent, etc. For cc = c see § 168,
for p = & § III.
Acacia, sf. an acacia ; a Lat. word intro-
duced by botanists. Among the Romans
it signified the white-flowering locust-tree.
More fortunate than many botanical names
(such as mimosa, salvia, etc.) which are
still used only by the learned, acacia has
taken root in the language, where it holds
its ground with as much right as the Lat.
words quietus, omnibus, etc.
Acad6niie, sf an academy, learned society;
from L. academia (the garden near
Athens in which Plato taught, thence ex-
tended to signify any meeting of philoso-
phers or learned persons). — Der. acat/^'mique,
academmtn.
Acaddmique, adj. academic ; from L.
academicus. — Der. academicxtn, from L.
academicus through a form academic-
ianus (§ 194).
*t" Acajou, sm. mahogany; an American
word, introduced with the wood into Europe
in the 18th cent. (§ 32).
Acanthe, sf the acanthus; from L. acan-
thus.
ACARIATRE, adj. crabbed, cross-grained.
The Lat. cara, a face, then a head (see
chere), produced a verb adcariare*, acca-
rare, whence O. Fr. acarier, whence the
deriv. acanastre (§ 199), found in R. Esti-
enne's Diet., a. d. 1549, i" sense of in-
sanus, mente captus, then acariatre
(§ 199). From its sense of foolish, mad,
in 1604, Nicot's Diet., it has come to
its modern sense, Diet, of the Academy,
1694.
ACCABLER, va. to overwhelm. The Gr.
Kara^oK-f], in sense of an overthrow, passing
from the abstract to the concrete sense of a
machine wherewith to overthrow (a fre-
quent change of sense, see § 12, and cp. Fr.
poin^on, from L. punctionem), produced
late Lat. cadabulum, a balista. This
word came in from the Byzantine Greeks,
through the Crusaders, as did several other
terms of medieval military art : ' Tribus
lapidibus magna petraria, quae cadabula
vocabatur, emissis,' sa3's (12 19) William the
Breton, De Gestis Philippi Augusti, A, 1202.
Cad6b(u)la, dropping u regularly (§ 51),
became O. Fr. cadable (iith cent. Chan-
son de Roland, strophe viii.) : Cordres a
prise e les murs peceiez, Od ses cadables
les turs en abatied (and his catapults
beat down the towers thereof). Next
ca[d)able, by dropping medial d (§ 120),
becomes caable, found in another passage
of the same poem, strophe xvi. : Od vos
caables avez fruiset ses murs (and your
catapults have broken its walls). From
this proper sense of a machine of war to
crush one's foe by throwing great stones
to overthrow him, caable comes to have
the more general sense of the act of
overthrowing (§ 12). An old Custom-
book of Normandy cited by Ducange (s.v.)
has ' De prostratione ad terram, quod
cadabiiluin dicitur, xxiii. solidos,' ren-
dered in the Fr. version (12th cent.) by
De ahatre a terre, que Von apele caable.
Caable, later contr. to cable, gave the
deriv. accabler, signifying to be crushed
under some heavy mass : Accabler, estre
accable de quelque chose qui chet sur nous,
ou estre esc ache ; obrui (1549), R. Estienne's
Diet. In 1604 Nicot's Diet, also gives this
term in the active sense : Accabler, c'est
affouler aulcun de coups pesans, Vatterrer
a force de pesanteur, et de charger sur
lui ; opprimere aliquem, obruere.
Finally, the word loses all but its figura-
tive sense, and is found in its modern
ACCAPARER — A CCOMPLIR,
signification alone in i68i, Richelet's Diet.
— Der. accablement (§ 225).
Accaparer, va. to buy up, to monopolise ;
a word first found in 1762 in the Diet, de
I'Academie, having eome in through the
comineree of Genoa and Leghorn with
Marseilles, from It. caparrare, to stop mer-
chandise. Accaparer, which ought to have
been caparrer, has got an initial a from
the It. accapare, to choose, take, whose
meaning is so similar to that of caparrare,
that it naturally produced a confusion be-
tween the two words. Very many modern
Fr. words of trade and commerce are of
It. origin (as banque, bilan, agio, etc.,
see § 25). — Der. accaparemexit (§ 225), ac-
capartxxr (§ 227).
Acc6der, va. to consent, accede (to) ; from
L. accedere.
Accel6rer, va. to accelerate, hasten ; from
L. accelerare. — Der. acceVe'ration.
Accent, sm. accent; from L. accentus. —
Der. accentViQT, accew/uation.
Accentuer, va. to accent ; from L. accen-
tuare*, deriv. from accentus, see Ducange
s. V. — Der. accen/wation, a learned form
(§ 232, note 4), from L. accentuatioaem,
Ducange, 92.
Acceptation, sf. acceptance ; from L. ae-
ceptationem*. See accepter.
Accepter, va. to accept, receive ; from L.
aceeptare. — Der. accepiion, accepution
(§ 232, note 4), accepuhle.
Acception, sf. acceptance ; from L. accep-
tionem.
Accds, sm. access, approach, entry ; from L.
accessus. — Der. accessoire (§ 233).
Accessible, adj. accessible ; from L. acces-
sibilis.
Accession, sf. consent, adhesion, accession ;
from L. accessionem.
+ Accessit, sm. ' accessit,' honourable
mention ; a Lat. word, introduced into scho-
lastic language. Its meaning is that one ' ap-
proached near' the prize without getting it.
Accessoire, adj. accessory; from L. ac-
cessorius, in Ducange.
Accident, sm. an accident; from L. acci-
dentem. — Der. accidenttX.
Accidentel, adj. accidental; from L. acci-
dentalis* found in Ducange. For alls =
el see § 191.
Acclamation, sf acclamation ; from L.
acclamationem.
Acclamer, va. to proclaim; from L. ac-
c lam a re. — Der. acc/amation.
Acclimater. See climat.
ACCOINTANCE, sf. intimacy, close con-
nection ; deriv. of accointer, q. v.
ACCOINTER (S'), vpr. to become intimate
(with one). It. accontare, from L. ad-
cognitare *, a compd. of ad and cogni-
tare *, deriv. of cogtiitus. Cognitare *
is not classical, though cognitamentum
occurs in Forcellini. Adcognitare is
not uncommon in Carolingian texts :
* Quarum exemplar Domination! vestrae
transmitto, ut . . . ad aliquem diem ju-
beatis venire fideles vestros dieentes quia
eis adcognitare vultis . . . .' Hinc-
mar, Opusc. De coereendis mil. rap. (a.d.
848). Dc = cc by assimilation (§ 168) pro-
duced accognitare, as in a Capitulary of
Charles the Bald, a.d. 856, § 11, * Et
habet . . . fideles suos convocatos ut . . .
nostram, qui fideles illius sumus devo-
tionem accognitet.' Accogn(i)tare,
contr. regularly (§ 51) to accogn'tare,
becomes acointer by cc = c (§ 168), g = «
(§ 131), are = er (§§ 49, 263), and by con-
tinuance of o, nt, and initial a. Acointer
inserted a diphthong regularly (§ 56) acoin-
tier : for its return to the form accointer
in the 15th cent, see § 56, note 4. — Der.
accom/ance (§ 192).
i'Accolade, sf an embrace, kiss. See
accoler.
ACCOLER, va. to embrace ; der. from col
(see cou). For the transcription back to
accoler from acoler in the 15th cent, see
§ 56, note 4. — Der. acco/lee, partic. subst.
(§ 187). This word, which rightly means
an embrace, kiss, and especially that given
to a new-made knight, was transformed in
the 1 6th cent, into accolade, in imitation
(§ 25) of It. accollata : for the Fr. sufRx in
ade see § 201. As late as the beginning
of the 17th cent, accolade still solely signi-
fied the embrace of a knight. Nicot (1604)
says, AccoLLADE, se fait en jetant les bras
autour du col. Accollee, embrassement,
comme Le faisant chevalier, il lui donna
I'accollee.
Accom m oder , va. to suit, arrange, dress;
from L. accommodare. — Der. accom-
modement (§ 225).
ACCOMPAGNER, va. to accompany; der.
from O. Fr. compaing. For details see
compagnon.
ACCOMPLIR, va. to accomplish; from L. ac-
complere *, compd. of ad and complere.
For dc = cc by assimilation see § 168. Ac-
complere becomes acomplir (12th cent.,
Raoul de Cambrai, 193) by cc = c (§ i68),
A CCORDER—A CCR OIRE.
ere = zV (§ 59), and continuance of a, o, m,
and pi. For the return in 1 6th cent, from
acomplir to accomplir see § 56, note 4. —
Der. accomplisstmQnt (§ 225).
ACCORDER, va. to reconcile, to agree. Sp.
acordar, It. accordare, from L. accordare,
der. (like concordare) from L. cor,
cordis ; — ' quasi ad unum cor, sive ad
eamdem voluntatem adducere' is R. Esti-
enne's explanation (1549). We find in
a treaty between Henry of Castile and
Charles V. (Martini, Anecd. i. 1501) 'Cum
parte adversa pactum seu pacem facere,
tractare ; accordare . . .' Accordare
becomes acorder (nth cent., C. de Roland,
285) by cc = c (§ l68), and continuance of
initial a, o, and rd. For acorder = accorder
in the 15th cent., see § 56, note 4. — Der.
accord (§ 184).
t Accort, adj. compliant, supple; from It.
accorto. In 1560 Pasquier says, in his
Recherches sur la France, viii. 3, Nous
averts deptiis 30 oil 40 ans emprunte plu-
sieurs mots d'llalie, comtne ' cofitrasie' pour
' contention,' ' concert ' pour ' conference,'
* accort ' pour ' avise.'
ACCOSTER, va. to accost. Sp. acostar. It.
accostare, from L. accostare, deriv. of ad
(Hist. Gram. p. 177) and costa, and so
properly signifying to set oneself side by
side : ' Fuit et stetit ita contractus ....
quod . . . unum crus vel genu cum alio non
potebat accostare . . . .' Mirac. S. Zitae,
in the Acta SS. iii. Apr. 523. Accostare
becomes acoster (12th cent., Livre des Rois,
363) by cc = c (§ 168), axe^er (§ 263),
and continuance of initial a, o, and st.
For 15th cent, accoster for acoster see § 56,
note 4. For unusual continuance of s see
§H7-
ACCOTER, va. to prop up, support. Origin
unknown (§ 35). — Der. accotoir (§ 183).
ACCOUCHER, va. n. to deliver (as a mid-
wife), to be delivered (of a child). This
word, der. from couche (q. v.), was written
acoucher in the 13th cent., and acouchier in
the 14th. For er = ier see § 56.
The history of this word is an example
of those restrictions of meaning mentioned
in the Introduction (§ 12). In the 12th
cent, accoucher meant, according to its ety-
mology, to lie down in bed. Mathieu de
Montmorency, says Villehardouin, accoucha
malade (lay down ill), et taut fut agreve
gn'il mouriit. Joinville, when ill, uses the
following expression, Et pour les dites
maladies j'accouchai au lit malade^ en la
mi-careme. Accoucher was soon restricted
to the sense of lying down, because of
illness, and then, later still, to ' He in ' for
childbirth.
From the 13th cent, onwards we see ac-
coucher used in this modern sense, though not
exclusively so : La contesse Marie accoucha
d'une fille. Villehardouin, 180. On the
other hand the word kept its sense of simply
lying down in bed till the 17th cent., as
we see in Nicot's Diet. 1604 : // s'est
accouche malade, ex morbo decumbit.
— Der. accouches. (§ 201), accouchement
(§ 225), accouchtwx (§ 227).
ACCOUDER (S'), vpr. to lean on one's elbow.
Sp. acodar, from L. accubitare, der. from
cubitus : ' Cum causa convivii fuisset
accubitatus,' says S. Branle (640) in
his life of S. Aemilianus. Accub(i)tare,
contr. regularly (§ 51) to accub'tare, be-
comes acouter (12th cent., Raoul de Cam-
brai, 51) by cc = c (§ 168), u = om (§ 90),
bt = / (§ 168), are = cr (§ 263), and by
continuance of initial a. Acouter in the
1 6th cent, was altered into accoubder by
the Latinists of the Renaissance. For
c = cc, and t = hd, see § 56, note 4. For
loss of b, see § 120.
ACCOUPLER, va. to join, couple (dogs, etc.);
der. from cople, O. Fr. form of cottple,
q. V. For o = ou see § 86 ; for c = cc § 56,
note 4. — Der. accouplement.
ACCOURCIR, va. to shorten; der. from
court, q. V. For c = cc see § 56, note 4. —
Der. raccourcir.
ACCOURIR, vn. to run up, come up hastily.
Sp. acorrer. It. accorrere, from L. accur-
rere. For the successive changes of
c\xxvev& — curir = corir = courir, see courir.
For c = cc see § 56, note 4.
ACCOUTRER, va. to dress up, accoutre.
Prov. acotrar : origin unknown (§ 35).
For acoustrer = accoutrer see §§ 56, note 4,
and 158. — Der. accoutrement (§ 225).
ACCOUTUMER, va. to accustom; der.
from coustume, O. Fr. form of coutume,
q. V. For Q = cc see § 56, note 4; for loss
of s § 158. — Der. accoutumznce (§ 192).
Accrdditer, va. to accredit; der. from
credit, q. v.
ACCROCHER, va. to hook up, tear with a
hook ; der. from croc, q. v. For c = cc in
the 1 6th cent, see § 56, note 4. — Der.
accroc (§ 184), xaccrocher.
ACCROIRE, va. to believe ; from L. accre-
dere, by regular contr. of accred(e)re to
accred're, whence acreire (12th cent.,
8
A CCR OISSEMENT—A CHETER,
St. Thomas le Martyr). For oo = c see
§ i68, e = « § 6i, dr = r § i68. For
ei = oi see § 6i. for o — cc, § 56 note 4.
ACCROISSEMENT, sm. growth, increase.
It. accrescimento, from L. aocrescimen-
tmn. (13th cent, acroissement, H. de
Valenc. x. 10.) For o = cc see § 56,
note 4.
ACCROITRE, va. to increase, enlarge. Sp.
acrecer. It. accrescere, from L. aoorescere.
For crescere = croistre, croitre, see croitre.
For o = cc, see § 56, note 4.
ACCROUPIR, vn. to cower down, squat;
der. from crope, O. Fr. form of croupe,
q. V. Etre accroupi is properly to sit on
one's tail. (13th cent, acropir, R. de
Renard, 5852 ; 14th cent, acroupir, Du
Guesclin, 16413.) For o=^ou see § 81,
for o = ctf § 56, note 4.
ACCUEILLIR, va. to welcome. It. acco-
gliere, from L. adcollegere, compd. of
ad and coUegere, a common Lat. form
of colligere: ' Et hospites tres vel am-
plius collegere debet,' in the Lex Salica,
6th cent. ed. Pardessus, p. 26 ; hence by as-
similation of do = cc (§ 168), accollegere,
found in the sense of associating, making to
partake, in medieval Lat. : ' Dominus etiam
Rex aooollegit abbatem et Ecclesiam in
omnibus quae in villa habebat,' Charter of
Louis VII. A.D. 1 1 50, in Thomass. Coutu-
mier de Bourges, p. 396. For collegere
= coillir (i2th cent.) = cueilltr (13th cent.)
see cueilltr. For o = cc see § 56, note 4. —
Der. accueil (§ 1 84).
ACCULER, va. to drive into a corner, bring
to a stand ; deriv. of cul, q. v.
AccuniTller, va. to accumulate ; from L.
accumulare. — Der. accumuhtion.
Accusateur, sm, an accuser; from L. ac-
cusatorem.
Accusatif, sm. the accusative case ; from
L. accusativum.
Accusation, sf. an accusation ; from L.
accusationem.
Accuser, va. to accuse; from L. accusare.
— Der. accusation, -ateur, -atif.
Acerbe, adj. bitter ; from L. acerbus. —
Der. acerbitL
AC^RER, va. to temper, steel. From acier,
q.v.
Acetate, sm. acetate; from L. acetum
with termination ate.
Ac6teux, adj. acetous ; from L. acetosus*,
deriv. of acetum. For osus = ^wa; see § 229.
Ac6tique, adj. acetic; from L. aceticus*,
deriv. of acetum.
ACHALANDER, va. to attract customers.
From chaland, q. v.
ACHARNER, va. to flesh, to excite, set
against. It is an example of that numerous
class of hunting terms spoken of in the
Introduction, § 13, which have passed
from their special and technical sense to
a general use. Acharner was originally a
term of falconry, meaning to put flesh
on the lure, to excite the bird. From
this proper sense of giving the falcon a
taste of flesh, to teach him to tear other
birds to pieces, comes the figurative sense
of exciting, irritating animals, then men,
against one another. At the beginning of
the 1 7th cent, the word still had both
senses: 1604, Nicot's Diet, has Acharner,
c'est mettre de la chair dessus : le contraire
descharner, pour oster la chair de dessus
le leurre. On prend aussi acharner />Ottr
ireusement addenter et deschirer aucun soil
en son corps, sa chevance ou son honneur,
ce qui est par metaphore. Acharner is from
L. adcarnare*, like decamare, found in
Vegetius. Acamare is found, without any
instance cited, in Ducange. Adcarnare
assimilates dc = cc (§ 168), whence accar-
nare, whence (§ 168) by cc = c, acarnare,
whence acharner by c = ci (§ 1 26), are = er
(§ 263), and continuance of initial a, rn,
and medial a. For the phonetic relation
of acharner to chair see § 54. — Der.
acharnevnent (§ 225).
ACHAT, sm. a purchase. The medieval L.
accaptare ( = acheter, under which word
the history of letter -changes is studied)
early produced a verbal subst. (§ 184)
accaptum = achat : ' Et sciendum quod
.... dedistis michi, priori S. Nazarii, v.
solidos pro acapto,' from a Charter of
1 1 18, Cartul. S. Victoris de Massilia, ii. 573.
Accaptum becomes achat by cc = c = ch
(§§ 168, 126), pt = / (Hist. Gram. p. 76),
loss of um, and continuance of the accented
a, and of the atonic a.
ACHE, sf. water-parsley; from L. apium,
by consonification pi = pj, whence ache, by
continuance of a, and reduction of pj —j
(Hist, Gram. p. 76), and uin = «.
ACHEMINER, va. to forward, advance ; from
chemin, q.v. — Der. acheminement (§ 225).
ACHETER, va. to buy. O. Sp. acaptar, from
L. adcaptare* compd. of class. Lat. cap-
tare. That Fr. acheter, though derived
from the same root with accipere, should
bear a different sense, will not seem astonish-
ing, when we find in Festus that the early
A CHE VER — A CQUITTJ^R .
Romans said emere for accipere : ' Nam
emere anliqni dicebant pro accipere.' Ad-
captare becomes accaptare by assimi-
lation of dc = cc (§ i68). ' Et est ipse
alodes in comitatu Lutevense quem pater
meus et ego accaptavimus,' Charter of
A.D. looo, and Vaissette, ii. p. 157. In a
Donation of 1060, Cartul. S. Victoris de
Massillia, 1. 414, we read, ' Accaptavit
vineas de Embreugo, quas plantavit Guido
K. . . accaptavit terram subter ecclesiam S.
- ' " Crucis.' Accaptare becomes flca/er (lith
cent.) by cc = c (§ 168), pt = ^ (Hist. Gram,
p. 76), are = er (§ 263), and by continuance
of initial a and medial a. Acater is suc-
cessively softened to achater (§ 126), l2th
cent., Livre des Rois, 119, then acheter
(§ 54), 13th cent., Berte aux Grans Pics,
115. In the 1 6th cent, the Latinists and
pedants of the Renaissance wished to bring
the word back to its Latin original, and
wrote it achapter, as we see in Amyot
and even in Rabelais. But the popular in-
stinct rebelled, and did not let this word,
like absoj/dre (q. v.), relapse into its Latin-
ised form ; and from the beginning of the
17th cent, the learned had to abandon their
innovation and conform to the popular
pronunciation by writing the word as of
old, acheter. — Der. achat (q. v.), achetem
(§227).
ACHEVER, va. to finish. The Lat. caput,
towards the end of the Empire, and in
Merov. times, took the sense of an end,
whence the phrase ad caput venire, in the
sense of to come to an end : ' Filum filabo
de quo Justinus Imperator, nee Augusta, ad
caput venire non possint,' says Narses
in the Ancient Chronology quoted by
Gregory of Tours. We also, in like man-
ner, find ad caput venire for ' to finish,'
in Fredegaire's Epit. ch. 65 (Monod).
Venire ad caput naturally produced the
Fr. phrase venir a chef= venir a bout. (For
caput = cAe/" see chef.) Aucun d'eux ne
put venir a chef de son dessein, Lafontaine,
Contes ; Quand le due d'AnJou vit qn'il ri'eti
viendroit point a chef, Froissart, ii. 2, 20;
whence the sense of chef =a.n end. term,
conclusion. Sur cette route, ati chief de
chaque journee, tl y a de beaux palais.
Montaigne, iv. 26; and in the 13th
cent. Joinville, ch. 235, says, Au chef de
ix jours, les corps de nos gens que ils avoient
tue. vindrent au dessus de I'eau. From this
chief, O. Fr. form of chef (q. v.), in sense of
term, end, comes the Fr. compd. achever =
venir a chef, to end, finish. For compd. of
ad see Hist. Gram. p. 177. For/=t/ see
§ 145. — Der. achevemeni (§ 225).
ACHOPPER, vn. to stumble; compd. of ad
(Hist. Gram. p. 177) and coper, O. Fr. form
of chopper, q. v. for origin of coper (13th
cent.) = choper (14th cent.) = chopper. — Der.
achoppemtnt (§ 225).
Achromatique, adj. achromatic. See chro-
mafique.
Acide, adj. acid; from L. acidus.
Aciditd, sf. acidity; from L. aciditatem.
Acidule, arf/ subacid ; from L. acidulus*,
deriv. of acidus.
ACIER, sm. steel. Sp. acero. It. acciajo,
from L. acierium.*, found in loth cent, in
Graeco-Lat. glossaries, der. from acies,
a sword-edge. Acierium becomes acer
(nth cent., Ch. de Roland, 771) by §rium
= er (§ 198), ci = c, and continuance of a.
For acer = acier see § 198. — Der. acerer,
acierer. For the diflferent forms acerer and
acierer see § 56, note 4.
Acolyte,sm. an acolyte; fromL. acolythus,
from Gr. aKoXovdos.
Aconit, sm. aconite ; from L. aconitum.
ACOQUINER, va. to captivate, illure. See
coquin.
Acoustique, sf. acoustics ; from Gr. olkovo-
TiKos, from aKovo).
ACQUERIR, va. to acquire; from L. ac-
quaerere, popular Lat. form of acqm-
rere. For quaerere = gwe'r/r see § 104 and
Hist. Gram. p. 140. For aquerir (12th
cent.) = acqidrir see § 56, note 4. — Der.
acquereuT (§ 227).
ACQUfiT, sm. an acquisition (in legal lan-
guage), property acquired ; from L, ac-
quaesitum, common Lat. form of acqui-
situm (see above acquerir from acquae-
rere not acquirere). For the transition
from a past part, to a subst. see § 187.
Acquaesitum becomes acquet by qua6-
8itMia = quest = quet: for details see quete
and querir. For aquest = acquest see § 56,
note 4.
Acquiescir, vn. to acquiesce, consent ; from
L. acquiescere.
Acquisition, sf. an acquisition ; from L.
acquisitionem.
ACQUITTER, va. to acquit, clear, discharge;
from L. adquietare, compd. of ad (Hist.
Gram. p. 177) and quietare, see quitter.
Adquietare, making dq = cq by assimila-
tion (§ 168), becomes acquietare, a form
found in both senses of acquitter in medieval
writers. * Et qui terram adquietatam.
lO
A CRE — A DMIRA TiF.
habet comitatus testimonio ..." is to be
found in the Laws of Edward the Confessor,
cap. 35 J and 13th cent, in Matthew Paris,
Chron. a.d. 1267, ' Petitum est, ut clerus
aoquietaret novem millia marcarum;'
and ib. Vita Henr. iii. 5 ; * Debita dicti
abbatis . . . mercatoribus benigne acquie-
tabat.' For the successive changes of
qtiietare = gutter = quitter see quitter. For
cq = 7 see § 168, for the French reverse
process q = eg § 56, note 4. — Der. acquit
(§ 187), acquittement (§ 225).
ACRE, sm. an acre ; from L. acrum * :
* Ego Starchrius do S. Florentino octo acra
de terra,' Chartul. de S. Florentino, a.d.
1050 (quoted by Ducange, s. v.). Acrum
is of Germ, origin (§ 27), and answers to
Goth, akr, Engl, acre. Germ, acker.
Acre, adj. sharp, acrid; from L. acris. —
Der. acrete (§ 230). The doublet of this
word (§ 22, note 3) is aigre, q. v.
Acrimonie, sf. pungency, acrimony; from
L. acrimonia.
Acrobate, sm. an acrobat ; from Gr. da/jo-
ficLTTjs (one who walks on tiptoe).
Acrostiche, sm. an acrostic; from Gr.
cLKpoarixov (the beginning of a line).
Acte, sm. an act, action ; from L. actus.
Acteur, sm. an actor; from L. actorem. —
Der. actr'ict, from L. actrix.
Actif, adj. active; from L. activus. — Der.
activite, from L. activitatem.
Action, s/l an action; from L. actionem.
— Der. actionner, aclionmire.
Actrice, sf. an actress; from L. actricem.
Actuel, adj. real, actual; from L. actualis.
— Der. actuaUte.
Adage, sm. an adage, saying ; from L.
adagium.
Adapter, va. to adapt ; from L. a dap-
tare.
Addition, sf. addition; from L. addi-
tion em. — Der. additionnd, additionev.
Adepte, sm. an adept; from L, adeptus
(one who has obtained knowledge of a
subject).
Adh6rent, sm. an adherent; from L. ad-
haerentem. See adherer.
Adherer, vn. to adhere; from L. adhae-
rere. — Der. adherence.
Adhdsion, sf. adhesion; from L. adhae-
sionem.
Adieu, adv. adieu, farewell ; compd. of d and
Dieu, q. v. Sp. adios is a similar compd.
of a and Dios, and It. addio of ad and
Dio. All these forms are the products of an
elliptical e:?cpression, such as soyez a Dieu, or
je vous recommande a Dieu. The fact that
the Prov. keeps the whole phrase in its
d Dieu siatz confirms this view of the origin
of the word.
Adipeux, adj. fat, adipose; from L. adi-
posus. For OB\XB = eux see § 229.
Adjacent, adj. adjacent; from L. adja-
centem.
Adjectif, sm. an adjective; from L. ad-
jectivus.
ADJOINDRE, va. to assign as a colleague;
from L. adjungere. For j\ing6re =join-
dre seejoindre. For adj = aj see § 120. For
the return aj = adj see § 56, note 4. — Der.
adjoint (§ 187).
Adjonction, sf addition; from L. adjunc-
tionem.
t Adjudant, sm. an adjutant; from Sp.
ayudante, an aide-de-camp, a word recon-
structed under the influence of Lat. adju-
tantem*, the original of the Sp. word.
The doublet of this word (§ 22, note 3) is
aidant, q. v.
ADJUGER, va. to adjudge, grant (as a con-
tract, etc.), knock down (at an auction) ;
from L. adjudicare, by dj=j (§ 120),
whence ajugier : see juger. For the return
2=dj see § 56, note 4.
Adjurer, va. to adjure; from L. ad-
jurare(§ 263).
ADMETTRE, va. to admit. It. ammittere,
from L. admittere. This word was first
reduced to amittere in Merov. Lat. ; we
find amissarius for admissarius in the
Salic Law, xl. § 5 ; whence O. Fr. amettre,
by mittere = mettre : see mettre. In 16th
cent, the d was reinserted by the Latinists
(§ 56, note 4).
Administrateur, sm. an administrator;
from L. administratorem.
Administratif, adj. administrative; from
L. administrativus. For ivus = i/ see
§ 223.
Administration, sf. administration ; from
L. administrationem.
Administrer, va. to administer; from
L. administrare.
ADMIRABLE, adj. admirable, wonderful;
from L. admirabilem, by dm = m (§ 168),
abilem = able (§ 51), whence amirable.
For reinsertion of of by the Latinists see § 56,
note 4 Der. admirablement (§ 225).
Admirateur, sm. an admirer; from L.
admiratorem.
Admiratif, adj. pertaining to admiration ;
from L. admirativus. For ivus = if
see § 223.
A DMIRA TION — A FFA IRE.
II
Admiration, sf. admiration; from L. ad-
mirationem.
Admirer, va. to admire; from L. admi-
rari. — Der. ac?m/rable, -ateur, -atif, -ation.
Admonestation, sf. See admonester.
Admonester, va. to admonish. L, ad-
moner^ produced, through its p. p. ad-
monitum, a frequentative admonitare
(admonitor is in the Cod. Theod. Leg. 7,
De Execut. 88). Admonitare is later
corrupted to admonistare *, then ad-
mo nestare *, whence Fr. admonester,
which is a term of jurisprudence = to repri-
mand judicially, whence the later and more
general sense of to admonish (§ 13).
Adolescence, sf. youth; from L. ado-
lescentiam.
Adolescent, smf a youth, stripling, young
girl; from L. adolescentem.
ADONNER, vn. to veer aft ; reflex. S'ADON-
NER, to give oneself up to. See don, and
Hist. Gram. p. 177.
Adopter, verb, to adopt, to choose; from
L. adoptare. — Der. adoption, adopti^.
Adoptif, adj. adoptive ; from L. adopt-
ivus. For ivns = if see § 223.
Adoption, sf. adoption; from L. adop-
tionem.
Adorable, adj. adorable; from L. adora-
bilis. For sihilis — able see § 51.
Adorateur, sm. an adorer; from. L. ador-
atorem.
Adoration, sf. adoration; from L. ador-
ationem.
Adorer, va. to adore; from L. adorare.
ADOSSER, va. to lean the back against.
See dos, and Hist. Gram. p. 177.
ADOUBER, va. to dub, in the phrase adouher
chevalier, to strike the knight with the flat
of the sword as he is being armed ; also to
hammer, strike, in the sea phrase adouberle
coq d'uti vaisseau, i. e. to repair it. Sp.
adobar, It. addobbare. Aduber (i ith cent.,
Ch. de Roland, 54) is a compd. of a and
of a form duber*, of Germ, origin, as are
many terms of feudal use and of seafaring
(§ 27). A. S. dubban, to strike, beat, ham-
mer, whence the two senses of the Fr. verb.
For aduber = adober (12th cent.) see § 93,
for adober = adouber § 93. — Der. xadouber
(Hist. Gram. p. 179).
ADRAGANT, sin. gum tragacanth, corruption
of Gr. TpaycLKavOa.
ADRESSE, verbal sf. (i) address, direction;
(2) dexterity; from adresser. See aboi.
ADRRSSER, va. to address, send. See dresser.
ADROIT, adj. adroit, dexterous. See droit.
Aduler, va. to flatter ; from L. adulari. —
Der. aduhtion (§ 232, note 4), adid&teuT
(§ 227).
Adulte, adj. full grown ; from L. adul-
tus.
Adultdre, sm. an adulterer; from L. adul-
ter. Adultere is a doublet of O. Fr. avoutre,
q. V. — Der. adulterm.
Advenir, vn. to happen, fall out, befall;
from L. advenire. It is a doublet of
avenir, q. v.
Adventice, adj. adventitious ; from L.
adventitius.
Adverbe, sm. an adverb ; from L. adverb-
ium. — Der. adverbi:a.\.
Adverse, adj. adverse, opposite ; from L.
adversus. It is a doublet of averse, q. v.
— Der. advers2i\x& (doublet of O. Fr. aver-
sier), adversite (§ 230).
A6rer, va. (i) to ventilate, (2) Chem. to
aerate; from L. a e rare, from aer (air),
whence the learned compds. aerien, aeri-
forme, etc.
A6rolitlie, sm. an aerolite ; from Gr. a-{]p and
Kidos.
A6ronaute, sm. an aeronaut; from Gr.
a-qp and vavr-qs.
A6rostat, sm. an air balloon ; from Gr. d-fip
and (TTaTos.
Affability, sf affability, graciousness ; from
L. affabilitatem.
AFFABLE, adj. aifable, courteous; from. L.
affabilis (easy of access for speech). Note
that the Lat. suffix -^bilis, accented on
the a, is contr. into -able. This is quite
regular, according to the law of the Lat.
accent, which rules that all words of this
class lose their short penult, as they pass
into Fr. See able. (We do not speak of
learned words ending in -abile, as habilis,
habile; the reasons for their exclusion are
given in the Introduction, § 22). The Fr.
uses the sufBx -able to form numerous adjs.,
specially from verbs ; thus from attaquer,
durer, manger, etc., it forms attaquable, dur-
able, mangeable, etc. Herein it only carries
out a very marked tendency of the last ages
of the Empire, in which we find the Romans
making out of verbs like affirmare, ven-
tilare, etc., the adjs. affirmabilis, ventil-
abilis, etc., which are found in Virgilius
the grammarian.
AFFADIR, va. to make insipid, to cloy. See
fade. — Der. q^Jissement (§ 225).
AFFAIBLIR, va. to weaken. See faible. —
Der. aj^a/6/issement (§ 225).
AFFAIRE, sf. business, occupation. In O. Fr.
12
AFFA ISSER — AFFUBLER.
more properly written a/aire, a compd. of
a And /aire. Der. affaire.
AFFAISSJIR, va. to sink, weigh down. See
faix. — Der. affaissemcnt (§ 725).
AFFAMER, va. to starve. See/a/m.
Affecter, va. to aftect; from L. affectare.
Affecter is a doublet of affaiter. — Der. af-
/<?c/ation (§232, note 4).
Afifection, s/ affection; from L. affec-
tion em — Der. ajffectuenx, from L. affec-
tuosus.
Afferent, adj. contributory; from L. affer-
entem.
AFFERMER, va. (i) to lease, let; (2) to
hire. Seeferme.
AFFERMIR, va. to strengthen, confirm ; see
ferme. Affermir is a doublet of affermer.
— Der. a^ermissement.
AFFETE, adj. affected, AFFETERIE, ^f.
affectation ; der. from O. Fr. affeter,
which from L, affectare. The Lat. ct,
in affectare is here reduced to / in affeter
(§168). In a certain number of words,
like oint from unctum, saint from sanc-
tum, the Lat. c is dropped, but influences
the preceding vowel by adding an i. The
change of ct into t is found in common
Lat., in which maleditus was used for
ma led ictus : it can also be traced in
class. Lat. as in sitis, artus, fultus, for
sictis, arctus, fulctus.
AFFICHE, verbal sf. of afficher, a placard,
posting-bill. See ahoi.
AFFICHER, va. to stick (bills). Seejicher.
+ Affid6, sm. and adj. (i) a trustworthy
agent, (2) trusty; from 1 6th cent. It. aff-
dato. Affide is a doublet of O. Fr. affie.
AflBler, va. to sharpen, whet. See^l.
AFFILIER, va. to affiliate, adopt ; from L.
adflliare. This word is of early use in
Lat. ; it occurs in Gains, ' De adoptivis
hoc est adfiliatis.' To be affiliated into
a corporation, properly means to be re-
ceived as one of the sons of that corpora-
ation. For df=/'see § 168.— Der. affilia-
tion (§ 232, note 4).
AFFINER, va. to refine. See Jin. — Der.
xnffner, -eur, -erie.
Afmiit6, sf. affinity, connexion, alliance;
from L. affinitatem.
Affirmer, va. to affirm; from L. affirm-
are. — Der. o^rwation, -atif.
AFFLEURER, va. to level. Seejleur.
Affliger, f a. to afflict; from L. affligere.
Affliger is a doublet of O. Fr. afflire. —
Der. afflicXion.
AfQ.uer, vn. to flow, fall into ; from L.
affluere. — Der. affluent (§ 186), -ence
(§ 192).
AFFOLER, va. to make one dote on. See
fou. — Der. laffoler (Hist. Gram, p. 179).
AFFOUAGE, sm. the right of cutting wood
for fuel in a forest. The Lat. focus {set feu)
produced the verb focare*, whence the
compd. affocare*, whence, with the sufi^ix
-aticum came the deriv. affocaticum* (,Ht.
the right of lighting the fire to warm oneself).
To get from the Lat. to the Fr., affocati-
cum has gone through three changes : —
1. The suffix -aticum (affocaticum)
becomes -age {affouage) (§ 248). For the
rule see age.
2. The medial c of affo(c)aticum dis-
appears in affou-age, as in allocare, al-
louer (§ 129), as is usually the case with
those words whose medial consonant pre-
cedes the accented vowel.
3. The Lat. o becomes o;< : affocaticum
becomes affouage. The Lat. o becomes
Fr. ou when accented, if short, as in rota,
roue, see Hist. Gram. pp. 53, 54; if long
by nature, as in fer5cem, farotiche, see
§ 81 ; if long by position, as in copula,
cop'la, couple, etc., see § 86. The atonic
Lat. o becomes Fr. on, when short, as in
apotheca, boutique, etc., see Hist. Gram,
p. 54; when long by nature, as in advo-
tare*, avouer, etc., see § 81 ; when long by
position, as in constare, costare, couter,
etc., see § 84.
AFFRANCHIR, va. to free; -ISSEMENT,
sm. enfranchisement. See franc.
AFFREUX, adj. frightful, horrible; from a
subst. affre, fright, used as late as the 1 7th
cent, by Bossuet ; in the i8th cent, by
S. Simon, in the phrase Les affres de la
mort. Affreux comes from affre, as dartreux
from dartre.
Affre, $f. fright, terror, in O. Fr. afre,
comes from O. H. G. eiver, contr. to eiv'r,
whence afre (§ 20); as liber has produced
livre. g 1 a b e r , glabre.
AFFRETER, va. to freight (a ship). See
freter.
AFFRIANDER, va. to make dainty, entice.
Seefriand.
+ Affront, sm. an aflfront, insult, shame;
brought in in the 1 6th cent, from It.
affronio (§ 25).
AFFUBLER, va. to wrap up, muffle ; from
Low L. aflblare, contr. from aflB.bulare
(found in a 12th cent, treaty, 'Pallium
quo in curia afllbulatus erit'), compd.
of class. Lat. fibulare. This word is
A FF ur — A GENCER.
13
a singular example of the changes in meaning
which we have noticed (§ 12). The signi-
fication of fibulare, to clasp, was enlarged
to that of ' to dress ' in afflbulare ; and in
the Fr. affubler, which at first meant simply
to dress, it took (in the 16th cent.) the
sense of dressing absurdly, muffling up.
For the dropping of the short atonic u
immediately before the tonic syllable in
afflb(u)lare = affubler see § 51. For the
change of i into u cp. bibebat, buvait,
etc., and see Hist. Gram. p. 51.
AFFLJT, sm. gun-carriage, gun-rest, ambush.
AFFUTER, va. to mount a guri, set, sharpen
(tools). See /it/.
AFIN, conj. to the end (that). See/w.
fAga, sm. an agha (military officer), a
Turkish word (§ 30).
AGASSE, sf. a magpie; from O. H. G. agal-
stra (§ 20).
AGACER, va. to set on edge. It. agazzare,
from O. H. G. hazjan, to harry, whence
regularly hacer. This verb, compd. with
d, becomes ahacer, which, through the
aspirate sound, became transformed into
agacer (§ 20).
t Agape, sf. a love-feast ; from Gr. ayairq
(§ 21, note i).
Agaric, s^n. a mushroom, fungus; from L.
agaricum.
AGATE, sf. agate; from L. achates. For
the change of ch into g see adjuger and
. § 127-
AGE, sm. age. The circumflex accent shows
that a letter has been suppressed : and so we
find in the 1 6th cent, the word written aage ;
in the 12th cent, eage ; in the nth cent, (in
the Chanson de Roland) edage, from common
Lat. aetaticum*, deriv. form of aetatem.
For the fall of the Lat. medial t, ae(t)aticum
— edage, eage, aage, age, see § 117. The
change of the Lat. suffix -aticiun into -age
(aet-aticiiin, ed-age) requires some notice.
This suffix, not uncommon in class. Lat.,
as silv-aticus (Varro), aqu-aticum
(Pliny), fan-aticus (Juvenal), umbr-
aticus, vol-aticus (Cicero), vi-aticum
(Plautus), apost-aticum (TertuUian), be-
came very common in popular Lat. towards
the last days of the Empire, and the early
Merovingian era : the Theodosian code has
agr-aticum for agrarium, August-ati-
cum from Augustus. Lat. documents of
the 6th and 7th cent, are full of such forms
as riv-aticum, port-aticum, ret-aticum,
daemon-aticum, avi-aticum, etc. ; even
allelui-aticum from alleluia, is met with
in a 6th cent, document. From these numer-
ous derivatives in -aticum have come the
corresponding Fr. words in -age (§ 248).
One can see how this permutation took
place, and how, e.g., volaticus (used by
Cicero in sense of light, inconstant) became
volage eight centuries later: volaticus
being accented on the antepenult, the
short penultimate i disappears (see §51);
volat'cus then becomes volat'ge (c changed
into g, see § 127), and lastly volage.
This successive change of the suffix
-aticum into -at'cum, -atge, -age, is to be
found also in arrivaticum *, arrivage;
biberaticum, breuvage, etc.; see § 248.
On this model many Fr. words have been
formed, as mouill-age, from mouiller,
cousin-age from cousin, etc.
The Provenfal, which changes -aticum
into -atge (as in very O. Fr,), and writes
carnatge, messatge, ramatge, for carnage,
es&age, ramage, confirms this rule of per-
mutation.
Towards the end of the nth cent., when
the Lat. accent was lost, and the Fr.
language already formed, Lat. forms in
-aticum. disappeared from Lat. documents,
and the termination -agium, copied from
the Fr. termination, alone is to be found.
Thus, while we find up to the nth cent,
the low Lat. forms, such as arrivaticum,
arrivage; hominaticum, Aomma^e; mis-
saticum, message; formaticum, /roma^g,
the I3th-cent. Lat. will not have them,
but says arrivagium, hominagium,
messagium, fromagium, etc., which
are only Fr. words wrapped up in a Latin
termination by the clerks at a time when
no one knew the origin of these words,
or of their formative suffix. This distinc-
tion between the late Lat. which gave
birth to the Fr. language, and the Low
Lat. remodelled on Fr. forms, is most im-
portant for the historical study of the Fr.
language, and the student ought to have it
always in his mind.
AGENCER, va. to arrange, dispose gracefully ;
from Low L. agentiare *, deriv. of gen-
tus *. See geni.
In passing from -tia to -cc, this word has
undergone two successive changes : —
I. It is unnecessary here to remind the
reader that the Lat. c was always pro-
nounced k before all vowels: fecerunt,
vicem, civitate, were proncd. feker-
unt, vikem, klvitate, save before an i
followed by a vowel (c-ia, c-ie, c-io, c-iu).
14
A GENO UILLER — A GRSA BLE.
in which case the o was proncd. tz (as is
proved by Merovingian Formulas, where
we find unzias/or uncias).
The groups t-ia, t-ie, t-io, t-iu, were
proncd., not like ti in amitie, but like //
in pricaution ; as is proved by Prankish
charters, which change ti into ci, si, ssi,
writing eciam, solacio, precium, per-
dicio, racionem, concrecasione, nep-
sia, altercasione, for etiam, solatio,
pretium, perditio, rationem, congre-
gatione, neptia, altercatione ; show-
ing also that in pronunciation tia and cia
were the same thing.
2. When the c is followed by one of
the groups, ia, ie, io, iu, and forms the
combinations cia, cie, cio, ciu — ci is
usually changed into a soft s, ss, p, and
the Lat. i is dropped; as in macioni, ma-
fon; provinciuli, proven fal ; suspicio-
nem, soupgon ; crescionem*, cresson, etc.
Thenceforward ti, which (when followed
by an a, o, or u) is identical with ci (as
is shown above), must, like ci, drop the
i and become p, hard s, ss: denuntiare
becomes denoncer ; cant ion em, chan-
son; scutionem*, ecMssow. A like change
takes place with -tea, which becomes -tia
(ea, eo, eu, becoming ia, io, iu, as may
be seen under abreger ; cp. also the forms
Dius, for Deus, mius for meus, in very
ancient Lat. inscriptions) : then such words
as platea, matea, linteolus, becoming
platia, matia, lintiolus, are rendered
according to rule into place, masse, linceul.
The following are the cases of change of
tia, tio, tiu, into g, ss, s hard : —
1. c soft in antianus, ancien; caden-
tia, chance, etc.
2. ss, as in captiare, chasser, etc.
3. s hard, as in cantionem, chanson,
etc. See Hist. Gram. p. 61.
The change of ti into soft s, as in acu-
tiare, aiguiser, is uncommon. See Hist.
Gram. p. 192.
AGENOUILLER, (S), vpr. to kneel ; from L.
adgeniculari, as in Tertullian, ' Presby-
teris advolvi et caris Dei adgeniculari.'
Aggloin6rer, va. to agglomerate, collect ;
from L. agglomerare. — Der. agglomer-
ation.
Agglutiner, va, to glue together, unite;
from L. agglutinare. — Der. agglutin-
ation.
Aggraver, va. to aggravate, make worse ;
-ation, sf. aggravation, increase. See
grave. I
Agile, adj. agile; from L. agilis. — Der.
flj^/7ite (§ 230).
+ Agio, sm. rate of exchange ; an It. word
introd. towards the end of the 17th cent.,
from aggio (§ 25).— Der. agioXtx (§ 263),
-age (§ 248), -eur (§ 227).
AGIR, va. to act, do; from L. agere.
For 6 = 1 see § 59. — Der. o^ent, from
agentem ; but f agenda, a Lat. word
imported bodily into Fr., is not to be
reckoned as a deriv.
Agiter, va. to agitate, stir; from L. agi-
tare. Der. a^i/ation, -ateur.
Aguat, sm. an agnate, collateral relation on
the father's side; from L. agnatus.
AGNEAU, sm. a lamb ; from O. F. agnel,
and this from L. agnellus. 1 preceded by
a vowel (al, el, il, ol, ul) remains un-
changed in Fr. in the early period of the
language (mollis, mol; malva, malve;
porcellus, pour eel) ; then was softened
into « (mou, mauve, pourceau) towards the
middle of the 12th cent. See § 157.
1. Lat. al became au, eau; as in alba,
aube, etc.
2. Lat. el became au, eau, as in el'-
mosyna*, aumone, etc.; ieu in melius,
mieux ; similarly with dim. suffixes in
-ellus, in O. Fr. el ; then softened for
the most part into -eau, -au, as agnellus,
agneau, etc.
3. Lat. il became eu in capillus, cheveu,
etc.; -eau in sigillum, O. Fr. seel, sceau ;
o, ou, in basil'ca, basoche, and fil'caria,
/ougere, which was written more correctly
feugere in O. Fr.
4. Lat. ol became OM in colis ( = caulis),
chou, etc.; eu in mol'narius, meunier, etc.;
071 in voltulare*, vautrer.
5. Lat. Til became ou in bulicare,
bouger, etc.; au in vulturius, vauiour;
o in remorque (O. Fr. remolque) from re-
mulcum.
Agonie, sf. agony, struggle against death;
from Gr. dycuvia. — Der. a^owiser.
AGRAFE, sf. a hook, clasp ; 0. Fr. agrnpe.
Low L. agrappa, compd. of ad and Low L.
grappa, a word found in documents of the
7th cent. Grappa again comes from
O. H. G. krap/o (§ 20). — Der. agra/er.
Agraire, arf/. agrarian ; from L. agrarius.
Agraire is a doublet of O. Fr. agrier.
AGGRANDIR, va. to enlarge ; -ISSEMENT,
sm. increase, aggrandisement. See grand.
AGREABLE, adj. agreeable ; der. from
agreer, like gueable from gueer. — Der.
desagreable (Hist. Gram. p. 1 78).
AGRSER — AIEUL.
15
AGREER, va. to receive favourably, accept
{\\t. = prendre a gre). See gre. — Der.
agrement, desa^re'ment.
Agr^ger, va. to admit, incorporate (into a
public body); from L. aggregare — Der.
agrege (of which agregat is a doublet),
agrega.tion.
AGREMENT, sm. consent, approbation. See
agreer.
AGRES, sm. pi. rigging, tackling. See greer.
Agresseur, sm. an aggressor ; from L.
aggressor em. — Der. agression, -if.
Agreste, adj. rustic; from L. agrestis.
Agricole, adj. agricultural ; ftom L. agri-
cola. The Lat. subst. has become a Fr.
adj.
Agriculteur, sm. a farmer, agriculturist;
from L. agricultorem. — Der. agricultwre.
Agronome, sm. an agriculturist ; from
Gr. aypovofios (which from aypos and
vo/xos) (§ 21).
AGUERRIR, va. to accustom to war. See
guerre.
AGUETS, sm. pi. a word used only in the
pi. in mod. Fr. (etre aiix aguets, to be on
the look out, to be lying in wait) ; but in
O. Fr. it had a sing. also. It is used as late
as Malherbe, Quand /'aguet d'un pirate
arreta leur voyage. Aguet is the verbal
sm. (§ 184) of the old verb aguetter, compd,
of guetter, q. v.
AHEURTER (S'), vpr. to be bent on, ob-
stinate. See heurter.
AHURIR, va. to amaze. The word hure,
originally meaning hair standing on end,
produced ahuri (la gent barbue et ahuri,
' a folk bearded and of up-standing locks,'
is a phrase of the 13th cent.). Ahuri
later received the sense of ' standing on end
from fright,' then ' terrified ' ; lastly, the
modern sense, which is nothing but a di-
minution of the old signification (§ 13).
AIDER, va. to aid, help; from L. adjutare
(Varro and Terence), later ajutare, which
must be written aiutare, as the Latins
pronounced j between two vowels as i.
For this cause raja, boja, major, baju-
lare, have become in Fr. raie, bouee
(O. Fr. boie), maire, bailler, as they were
proncd. raia, boia, ma'ior, baiulare.
To pass from aiutare to aider we find
two philological changes: (1) the fall of
the u, aiutare becoming a'itare (§ 52);
(2) the change of t into d, aitaxe = a'idar,
then aider (§ 117).
I. Fall of the u. We have seen (§ 52)
that every vowel immediately preceding the
tonic vowel (like the i of sanitatem), dis-
appears in Fr. if short (san-!l!-tatem =
satite), remains if long (caem-e-terium =
cim-e-tiere). This continuance of a long
atonic vowel has only a few exceptions :
the atonic vowel which directly precedes
the tonic syllable disappears, when long, in
mirabilia, merveille, etc. § 52. There are
about twenty of these exceptions to the rule
of the continuance of the long atonic vowel,
which are to be explained by two facts :
(1) that in many of these words the con-
traction is quite modern, and the long atonic
vowel remained inO.Fr.; — courtier, serment,
soup^on, larcin, were in O. Fr., more regu-
larly, couretier, serement, soupe^on, larecen :
(2) that in the common Lat. many of these
words had already lost this long atonic
vowel, and the Fr. simply reproduced this
irregularity, and could do nothing else ;
thus in the 7th cent, we find cosinus for
consobrinus, costuma for consuetu-
dinem, matinum for matutinum, el-
mosna for eleemosyna, vercundia for
verecundia.
2. The softening of the t into d. Aiu-
tare having become aitare changes into
aidare. This softening had already taken
place in common Lat., in which it was very
frequent, especially when the t lay between
two vowels : iradam is found for i rat am
in an inscription of a. D. 142; limides,
sidus, terridoriam, mercadum, stradu,
for limites, litus, territorium, mer-
catum, strata, in 5th cent, documents,
and in the Salic Law ; thus again. Classical
Lat. said quadraginta, quadratus, from
quatuor, which, regularly, should have
been quatraginta, quatratus. Por the
full history of the Lat. t see aigu and
§§ 117, 118.
Der. aide, verbal subst. of aider, aidant^
which is a doublet of adjudant, q. v.
AIEUL, sm. a grandfather ; from L. aviolus.
By the side of the class, form avus, the
popular Lat. had a form avius, which is
to be found in certain 5th-cent. documents.
(Such double forms as avius and avus are
not rare in Lat.; witness luscinius and
luscinus, etc.) From this form avius the
Romans made the derivative aviolus, by
adding the dim. suffix -olus (cp. gladi-
olus, filiolus, lusciniolus, etc.). Avi-
olus, properly ' a little grandfather,' soon
supplanted avius, in accordance with the
Roman tendency to use diminutives. See
§13-
i6
AIGLE — AIGU.
In the passage from aviolus to aieul
(O. Fr. aiol, Prov. aviol, forms which help
to explain that transition), there were two
philological changes : —
1. The medial V was dropped: a(v)iolu8,
aieul, AS pa(v)onem, paon ', pa(v)orem,
peur, etc. (§ 141). This dropping of v
between two vowels is not rare in Lat. ;
the Class. Lat. said bourn for bo(v)um,
audii for audi(v)i, redii for redi(v)i ;
and this tendency became yet more marked
in popular Lat., where we find rius for
ri(v)us, ais for a(v)is, also noember
for no(v)ember in Inscriptions; and in
the 7th cent, paonem for pa(v)onem in
the Glosses of Cassel.
2. Avioltis thus reduced to aiolus,
produced in O. Fr. aiol, which became aieul
by softening the o into eu (see accueillir).
On this change of the suffix -olxis into
•eul two remarks are needed : (i) suffixes in
-iolus (and with these may be classed
those in -eolus, for they were early changed
into -iolus, as is shown by the hiscriptions,
which give us capriolus for capreolus,
and the Glosses of Cassel, which have
linciolo for linceolo, etc.) were, about
the 7th cent., subjected to a change which
turned the two short syllables i-6 into a
single long syllable io ; so that these words
were no longer accented -iolus, but -iolus :
(2) these suffixes in Fr. became -eul, -euil, or
-ol ; as in aviolus, aieul ; capreolus, chev-
reuil ; lusciniolus, rossignol (§ 253).
AIGLE, sm. an eagle ; from L. aquila. Re-
gularly contracted into aq'la (see rule in
§ 52), the Lat. aquila has undergone two
changes in its transit into Fr. : (i) the
accented a becomes at, and (2) the q be-
came g.
1. The Lat. accented a became Fr. at,
when short, as in ft mo, aime ; when long
by nature, as in clarus, clair ; when long
by position, as in acrum, aigre (§ 54).
The atonic Lat. a becomes at in Fr. when
it is short, as in S,cutus, aigu; when long
by nature, as in alatus, aile ; when long by
position, as in (zsceUum, faisceau, etc.
2. q becomes g, aq'la, aigle (§ 129);
or rather ql becomes gl, and has thus
undergone the same change as has be-
fallen the corresponding cl, which has
become gl in ecclesia, eglise (§ 129).
Thus many French persons still pronounce
the words reine claude as reine glaude,
etc.
AIGLON, sm. a little eagle, eaglet ; dim. of
aigle, q.v.; formed by the addition of the suf-
fix -on, as in anon, chaion, ourson, raton,
from ane, chat, ours, rat. This suffix -on is
derived from the Lat. suffix -onem, which
was used for the same purpose; from sabu-
lum, sahle, sand, the Romans formed
sabulonem, sablon. Aiglon is a doublet
of aquilon, q. v.
AIGRE, adj. acid, sour ; firom L. acrem.
For a = a/ see § 54; for c=^ § 129.
Aigre is a doublet of acre, q.v. — Der.
aigrem, aigrelet, aignr, aigrement.
AIGREFIN, sm. sl sharper, swindler. Origin
unknown.
AIGRETTE, sf. an egret, a kind of heron,
whose head is tufted with feathers, which
have come to take the same name. Ma-
nage, in the 17th cent., said, II y a
certaines plumes en deux costez des oelles
sur le dos de V aigrette, qui sont deliees et
blanches et qui sont vendues bien cheres es
basefaus de Turquie.
The O. H. G. biegro (a heron) (§ 27) be-
came Fr. aigre, of which aigrette is the dim.,
meaning a little heron. (For dim. suffix
in -ette see § 281.) This O. H. G. beigro
became in Low L. aigronem, in the loth
cent, aironem, whence O. Fr. hairon ;
15th cent, heron. The reduction of gr
into r may be found in peregrinus,
pelerin (§131).
AIGU, adj. sharp, pointed ; from L. acutus.
For B. = ai see § 54, for c = ^ § 129.
As to the reduction of the termination -utus
into M (§ 201), or (to narrow the subject still
more) the dropping of the Lat. dental t, this
did not take place in the passage from
Lat. to Fr. ; t is at first changed into d in
Merovingian Lat. (see under aider'), and
this d remained in the earliest O. Fr. monu-
ments, down to the end of the llth cent.;
thus spatha, natum, honorata, became
spada, nadum, honorada, whence come
the O. Fr. forms espede, ned, bonorede, which
after the beginning of the 12th cent,
dropped the d and became espee, ne, honoree.
Acutus must have passed through the
form aigud before reaching aigu, as vir-
tutem, cornutum, canutum, became ver-
tud, comud, chenud, and then vertu, cornu,
chenu. — Der. The only word derived from
aigu is the verb aiguiser, from L. acuti-
are *. We have just seen how acutus
became aigu: for the change of the ter-
mination -tiare into -ser (or of Lat. -ti
into soft s) see Hist. Gram. p. 192, and
agencer.
AIGUE — AIN^.
17
AIGUE, sf. water ; from L. aqua. For the
change of a into ai see § 54, and of q
into g see § 129, note 2. The word aigue,
lost in mod. Fr., remains in some names of
places, as Aigues-Mortes, Chaudes-Aigues ;
and in a certain number of derived words, as
aigniere, a water-vessel, ewer ; aiguade, a
water supply (for ships at sea); aigue-
marine, lit. eau-marine, sea-water, the
aqua-marina or beryl.
AIGUE^MARTNE, sf. aqua-marine. See aigue.
AIGUIERE, sf. a jug, ewer. See aigue.
AIGUILLE, sf. a needle; from L. acucla*.
The Lat. acicula, dim. of acus, which,
hke so many diminutives, has taken the
place of its primitive (see § 18), had two
forms, acicTila which is to be found in
the Theodosian Code, ' oportet eam usque
ad aciculam capitis in domo mariti,' and
acucxila, which was soon contracted into
acucla (for the law, see able). For a, = ai
see § 54; for o = g, § 129; and for -ucla
= -uille, § 257. — Der. aiguillee, aiguillette,
aiguillon.
AIGUILLEE, sf a needlefull. See aiguille.
AIGUILLETTE, sf a little needle ; dim. of
aiguille.
AIGUILLON, sm. a goad. See aiguille. —
Der. aiguilloner .
AIGUISER, va. to sharpen. See aigu.
AIL, sm. garlic; from L. allium, by 11 = /,
and the attraction of the Lat. i, as in mol-
liare*, mouiller ; meliorum, tneilleur,
etc., see § 70.
AILE, sf a wing ; from L. ala. For a = ai
see § 54. — Der. aile.
AILERON, sm. a pinion ; formed from aile,
like bucheron from buche, chaperon from
chape, forgeron from forge, moucheron
from viouche, mousseron from mousse, pu-
ceroji from puce, etc.
AILLEURS, adv. elsewhere ; from L. alior-
sum. For '\i = ill see § 70; and for o = eu,
§ 79- — Der. d'ailleurs.
AIMABLE, adj. amiable ; from L. amabilis.
The suffix -abilis was regularly contracted
into -ablis in common Lat. -abilis is
accented on the antepenult, and we have
shown that every short penultimate vowel
disappears in Fr. (see § 51).
-dbilis, in form of -ablis, produced the
suffix -able (§ 250), which is very common
in Fr.
AIMANT, sm. a loadstone, magnet ; from L.
adamantem. Aimant, in O. Fr. atmant,
Prov. adiman, has lost the medial Lat. d
(see § 120); ad(a)mantem has become
aimant, by changing a into ? (§ 54, note 3),
a change found in a few words : cerasus,
cerise; cariophyllum, g'zrq^e; avellana,
aveline ; jacitum, g-i/e ; bombitare, 6o«-
dir ; retimita.re, relentir.
This change belongs to the Lat. period,
in which men said equally avellina or
avellana, and formed in-sipidus from
sapidus, ini-micus from amicus, in-
stituo from statuo, dif-ficilis from fa-
cilis, ac-cipere from capere, e-ripio
from rapio, etc.
AIMER, va. to love ; from. L. amare. For
a, = ai, see § 54.
AINE, sf. the groin ; corruption of O. Fr.
aigne, which from Lat. inguinem. In-
guinem has produced aigne, as sanguin-
em, saigne. Inguinem, contracted into
ing'nem (after the law given § 51), has
become aigne, by i = ai (see § 74), and
by ng = gn, as may be seen in jun-
gentem, joignant; tingentem, teignant;
sanguinem, saigne.
AINE, sm. and adj. elder, eldest. O. Fr.
ainsne, before the 13th cent, ainsne, compd.
of ains and ne. Instead ofprimogenitus,
the common Lat. usually said ante natus.
In the 7th cent. Isidore of Seville translates
antenatus by privignus, and primo-
genitus by ante natus. He opposes
antenatus to postnatus, the latter stand-
ing for the younger, the former for the
eldest, son.
Ante having become ains in Fr. (by
a = ai, § 54), and natus having be-
come ne (q. v.), ante natus became first
ains-ne, as post-natus became puis-ne
(whence puine). Just as the common Lat.
said ante-natus and post-natus, for older
and younger sons, so O. Fr. opposed ains-ne
to puis-ne or moins-ne. The same dis-
tinction is met with in the Coutumes de
Beaumanoir, where the rights of the ains-ne
are legally distinguished from those of the
puis-ne.
The form ains-ne was changed in the
14th cent, into ais-ne by dropping the «,
a process met with in the Lat. ; for while
the texts of early Lat. read formonsus,
quadragensimus, quotiens, Class. Lat.
wrote formosus, quadragesimus, quo-
ties; and thus, in turn, the Class, forms,
censor, mensis, impensa, inscitia,
mensa, Viennensis, were reduced to
cesor, mesis, impesa, iscitia, mesa,
Viennesis, in common Lat., as Varro,
Festus, and Flavius Caper tell us. The
C
i8
AINSI—AJUSTER.
Merovingian Lat. carried on this tendency :
in Chartularies of the 7th cent, we read
masus for mansus, remasisse for re-
man si sse, etc. The following is the full
list of cases in which this reduction takes
place: — mansionem, maison; mensura,
mesure; sponsus, dpoux; constzre, co-uier;
insula, i/ff; ministerium,ni<f//cr; mensis,
mois; monasterium, moutier; pensum,
poids; pTtnsus *, pris; tensz, toise; ton-
sionem, toison; trans, tres; pagensis,
pays; prensionem*, prison; mansura,
masure ; pensare, peser ; mensurare,
mesurer ; turonensis, tournois; grae-
censis*, gregeois; pensile*, poele.
But language incessantly undergoes modi-
fication : Lat. and Fr, are only succes-
sive conditions of one language, and this
reduction of ns into s took place not only
in the transition from Lat. to O. Fr., but
also in the passage from O. Fr. to mod.
Fr. ; ains-ne became ais-ne in the 14th
cent., and aisne passed into nine in the 1 7th
cent. — Der. amesse.
AINSI, adv. so, thus, in this manner ; O. Fr.
ensi, further back insi; from L. in-sic.
See si. (Cp. Hist. Gram. p. 158.)
AIR, sm. air ; from L. aer. It is easy to
see how air came to bear the sense of
natural disposition, by comparing it with
the Lat. spiritus, which means both
breath, wind, passion, and disposition (§ 15).
The musical signification of the word was
adopted in the 1 7th cent, from the It. aria,
which is also derived from Lat. aer : from
it Fr. air has taken the It. sense, but has
retained its Fr. form.
AIRAIN, sm. brass ; from L, aeramen. The
suffix -amen became -ain {airain) as
in levamen, levain, etc. (§ 226). Just
as the suffix -amen became -ain, -aim,
-en, in Fr., so the corresponding suffixes
-imen, -tuneii, had become -in, -ain, -or,
-un, in Fr. (see § 226).
AIRE, sf. an eyry; indirectly from the
Germ, aren, to make one's rest, which
in turn comes from Germ, aar, an eagle
(§ 20).
AIRE, sf. a barn-floor, threshing-floor ; from
L. area. Area first became aria by the
regular change of ea into ia (see under
abreger and agencer) ; aria became aire
by transposition of i (see under anier).
Aire is a doublet of are.
AIRELLE, sf. the whortle-berry. Origin un-
known (§ 35).
AIS, sm. a. plank, board ; from L. assis. For
8S = s, see passus, pas; crassus, gras;
pressus, /res; bassus, bas ; lassus, las.
For the transposition of i, see Hist. Gram.
P- 77-
AISE, sf. satisfaction, joy, content. Origin
unknown. — Der. ais6 (§ 201), a/5^nient
(§ 225), atsance (§ 192), malo/se, mala?s^,
malaisement. (For the prefix see mal, and
Hist. Gram. p. 180.)
AISSELLE, sf. the armpit ; from L. axilla.
For a = ai see § 54. For x = ss, cp.
exagium, essai; examen, essaim; etc.
(§ 150). This change had also taken
place in Lat. : x, which is in fact cs, soon
was assimilated into ss. In Lat. we find
the forms lassus, assis, cossim, side by
side with laxus, axis, coxim ; the In-
scriptions give us conflississet, essor-
cista, for conflixisset, exorcista, — and
we have in MSS. frassinus, tossicum,
for fraxinus, toxicum.
For i = e see § 72. Aisselle is a doublet
of axille, q. v.
AJONC, sm. sea-rush (?). Origin unknown
(§35). Seejonc.
AJOURNER, va. to adjourn; from L. ad-
journare, in Charlemagne's Capitularies
' qui non erant adiurnati.' See jour. —
Der. adjournement.
AJ OUTER, va. to add, join; O. Fr, ajouster,
Prov. ajostar, from L. adjxixtare*. The
etymological meaning, which is *to put side
by side,' is to be found in the llth cent. ;
thus in the Chanson de Roland one of the
peers bids the French s'ajouler en bataille
(place themselves in rank, side by side).
Adjuxtare, which becomes ajuxtare
(for dj=j cp. djurnum*, jour; hord-
jum*, orge; assedjare*, assieger; and
§§ 120, 137), produced ajouster by u = 07^
(§ 97)> 3nd by x = s (to be met with in
Lat. inscriptions, in which we find sistus for
sextus, obstrinserit for obstrinxerit).
This change of x into s occurs in Fr. in axis,
ais; buxus, buis; dextrarius*, destrier;
and in the eight O. Fr. words sextarius,
sestier; buxda*, boiste; tax'tare*, taster;
ix2LXxn\is, fresne; juxtare *, _;oMS/er ; de-
exducere*, desduire ; deexviare*, des-
vier; exclusa, escluse, which in mod. Fr.
have lost the s and are setier, boite, later,
frene, jouter, deduire, devier, ecluse, just
as ajouster has become ajouter. (For the
dropping of s, see § 147.) Ajouter is a
doublet of ajuster, q. v. — Der. ajut&ge for
ajouUge (§ 248).
AJUSTER, va. to adjust. Ste juste. Ajuster
ALAMBIC — ALLECHER.
19
is a doublet oiajouter, q. v. — Der. ajustage,
ajustement.
t Alambic, sm. an alembic, a still. This
word was introduced in the 12th cent, from
the alchemist's Lat. alambiquus, bor-
rowed, together with the instrument itself,
from Ar. al-anbiq, a distilling vessel (§ 30).
— Der. alambiqneT.
ALANGUIR, va. to enfeeble. See languir.
+ Alarine, sf. alarm, a military term in-
troduced in the 1 6th cent. (§ 25) from Ital.
alVarme, a word of similar sense, but literally
a cry 'to arms,' the call of sentinels surprised
by the enemy. In the 1 7th cent, alarme
was still written allarme, in accordance with
its etymology. — Der. alarmer, alarmiste
(§ 217).
ALBATRE, sm. alabaster ; from Lat. ala-
bastrum, written albastrum in some
Lat. MSS. For this dropping of a see
§ 52, and accointer ; for the fall of the
s see abime.
+ Albinos, sm. an albino, a word intro-
duced in the 17th cent, from Sp. albino
(§ 26).
+ Album, sm. an album, scrap-book ; from
L. album. Album is a doublet of aube,
q.v.
Albumine, sf. albumen; from L. albu-
men. Albumine is a doublet of aubun.
+ Alcade, sm. an alcade; from Sp. alcade
(§ 26).
+ Alcali, sm. alkali, a word introduced into
Fr. through the alchemist's Lat. from the
Ar. alcali, salts of soda (§ 30). — Der.
alcal'm.
tAlchimie, sf. alchemy, a word intro-
duced into Fr. through alchemist's Lat. from
Ar. al-chymia (§ 30). — Der. alchimiste.
+ Alcool, sm. alcohol, formerly alcohol,
an alchemist's word, taken from Ar. alqohl
(§ 30).
tAlcdve, sf an alcove, recess, a word
introduced in the 1 6th cent, from the It.
alcovo (§ 25).
Alcyon, sm. the kingfisher ; from L. al-
cyone.
Al6atoire, adj. uncertain, depending on
chance; from L. aleatorius.
ALENE, sf an awl. O. F. alesne, from O. H.
G. alasna, a transposition of alansa (§ 20).
ALENTIR, va. to slacken, formed from lent.
This word, used by Corneille and Moliere,
survives in mod. Fr. in the compd. ra-
lentir.
ALENTOUR, adv. around, round about ; O.
Fr. a I'entour. See entour.
t Alerte, interj. sf and adj. (i) take care!
(2) an alarm ; (3) alert, vigilant. O. Fr.
allerte, in Montaigne and Rabelais a I'erte,
originally a military term, borrowed from
It. in the i6th cent. (§25) from the cry
alVerte (take care !). The It. phrase stare
all' erta means ' to stand on the alert. '
ALEVIN, sm. fry of fish; from L. alleva-
men. For the termination amen = in,
see § 226.
Alexandria, adj. Alexandrine (verse).
Origin unknown (§ 35).
+ Alezan, adj. sorrel (horse); introduced in
the 17th cent, from Sp. alazan (§ 26).
tAlgarade, sf a sudden outburst of
temper; introduced in the 17th cent, from
Sp. algarada (§ 26).
+ Algdbre, sf algebra; from medieval
scientific Lat. algebra, which from Ar.
aldjabroun (§ 30).
+ Alguazil, sm. an alguazil (officer);
from Sp. alguazil.
Algue, sf sea- weed; from L. alga.
+ Alibi, sm. an alibi; from L. alibi.
ALIBORON, sm. a wiseacre, ass. Origin un-
known (§ 35).
f Alidade, sf reckoning; from medieval
scientific Lat. alidada, which from Ar.
alidad (§30).
Ali6ner, va. to alienate, transfer property ;
from L. alienare. — Der. a/ze«ation, alien-
able (§ 250). The sense of derangement is
to be found in the Lat. word also.
ALIGNER, va. to square, draw out by line.
See ligne. — Der. alignement.
Aliment, sm. aliment, nourishment; from
L. alimentum. — Der. alimenter, -ation
(§ 232, note 4).
t Aline a, adv. (sf) a paragraph ; formerly
d linea, from the Lat. a linea, used in dic-
tation to show that the writer must break
off and begin a new line.
Aliquante, adj. (Math.) some ; from L.
aliquantus.
Aliquote, adj. (Math.) aliquot ; from L. ali-
quot.
ALITER, va. to lay in bed. See lit.
ALIZE (also written alise), sf. the lote-tree
berry ; of Germ, origin, from O. H. G.
eliza (§ 20). — Der. alisier (§ 198).
ALLAITER, va. to suckle; from L. allac-
tare. For ct = it see § 129 and Hist.
Gram. p. 50. — Der. allaitement.
ALLECHER, va. to allure, attract ; from L.
allectare. The very unusual change of
ct into ch is to be found also in flectere,
flechir; tc fleeter c,rejlechir; impactare,
C 2
a,o
A LINGER — A LL UMER .
empecher ; coactare*, cacher. — Der. al-
lechement.
ALLEGER, va. to lighten, ease; from L.
alleviare. Alleviare became allevjare
by i=j (see Hist. Gram. p. 65); allevjare
became aUejare, and then alleger, by
yj=^, as in nivea, nivja, neige, etc.
(Hist. Gram. p. 81). This change of the
V also takes place (l) before the other
gutturals {vc, vg), as in nav'gare nager;
(3) before the dentals (vt, vd), as in civ'ta-
tem, cite; (3) before the liquids, as in
juv'nis, jeune. — Der. allegeznce.
A116gorie, sf. an allegory; from L. alle-
goria. — Der. allegoriqae.
ALLEGRE, adj. brisk, nimble, lively. O. Fr.
alegre, from L. alacris. For a = e see § 54 ;
for CT=gr see § 129. — Der. a//e^r^ment,
allegresse.
+ Allegro, adv. and sm. allegro; from It.
allegro (§ 25).
All^guer, va. to quote, allege ; from L.
allegare Der. allegziidn.
Allelllia, sm. hallelujah, introduced by St.
Jerome in 4th cent, into ecclesiastical Lat.
Heb. hallelujah (§ .^o).
ALLER, va. to go. This word has borrowed
its tenses from three different Lat. verbs : —
(l) The I, 2, 3 sing. pres. indie, from Lat.
vadere ; vado, je vais ; vadis, tu vas ;
vadit, il va. (O. Fr. il vat). (2) The fut.
and condit.firaiyfirais, from the Lat. ire,
by the usual formation of the fut. (See Hist.
Gram. p. 149.) (3) The remaining tenses,
allais, allai, allasse, aille, allant^ alle, are
related to the infin. aller, which was in O. Fr.
aler, and aner, and comes from Merovingian
Lat. anare, a soft form of adnare, which
properly signifies ' to come by water ' (as in
Cicero), but soon was much widened in
sense ; thus, in Papias adnare is used for
• to come by land.' The same remark may
be made as to the corresponding word
enare (to swim, in Cicero), which even in
Class. Lat. signifies ' to come ' (no matter
how) : ' Daedalus .... gelidas enavit
ad Arctos,' Virg. Aen. 6. 16 (i.e. by fly-
ing), or ' Enavimus has valles,' Silius
Ital. (i. e. by land). It is singular that .the
same transition from water to land occurs
in the word adripare, at first meaning ' to
touch the shore,' afterwards ' to reach one's
aim,' whence Fr. arriver. See also § 13.
To pass from adnare, anare, to Fr.
allevt through the intermediate forms aner
and aler, there has been an important
change of n into /. This change of a nasal
into a liquid is not rare in Fr., as in
orphaninus *, orphelin; Ruscinonem,
Roussillon, § 1 63; and even in falol and
juillet, which stand for fanot, juinet. For
are = er see § 263. — Der. a//^e, participial
subst. (§ 187).
ALLEU, sm. allodial ownership. O. Fr. alou,
aloud, Sp. alodio. It. allodia ; from Mero-
vingian Lat. allodium, a word of Germ,
origin, in common with all feudal terms.
Allodium is from O. H. G. alod (§ 20),
full ownership, the franc-alleu (hereditary
property, free from all duties to a higher
lord) being opposed to benefice, which was
originally a life-ownership, dependent on
the will of the lord of the fief.
ALLIER, va. to mix, unite, ally; from L.
alligare. The Lat. g disappears from
alli(g)are : this phenomenon, found in the
last ages of Latinity (niellatas is found
for nigellatas in a Merovingian docu-
ment), is common in Fr. (i) when the
g preceded the accented vowel, as in
au(g)ustus, aout', gigantem, geant, etc.;
(2) when the g followed the accented
vowel, as in exa(g)ium, essaim; re(g)em,
roi. — Der. alliance (§ 192), allie (§ 201),
alliage (§ 248), me&allier, mesaZ/zance
(Hist. Gram. p. 180), lallier (Hist. Gram,
p. 179), ralliement.
t Alligator, sm. an alligator ; intro-
duced by English travellers (§ 28, note l).
Allocation, sf. an allocation, allowance;
from L. allocationem*, from allocare.
Allocution, sf. an allocution ; from L.
allocutionem.
ALLONGER, va. to lengthen. See long. —
Der. allonge.
Allopathie, sf. (Med.) allopathy ; from Gr.
aWos and vdOos, a medical system. See
homceopaihie. — Der. allopathe,
ALLOUER, va. to allow (a stipend) ; from L.
allocare *. For letter-changes see louer :
for ad = a/ see Hist. Gram. p. 177, and for
assimilation of d to /, § 168. See also
allumer.
ALLUMER, va. to kindle; from L. ad-
luminare*, compd. of luminare. Ad-
luminare is alluminare in several 7th-
cent. documents, by dl = ll, a frequent
Lat. assimilation, as in allucere or adlu-
cere, alludere or adludere, alluere or
adluere, allocutio or adlocutio, alli-
gare or adligare, allevare or adlevare,
etc. This assimilation also went on in Fr.
by change of dl into / or //, as in mod'lus,
moule (§ 168). Allum(i)nare first be-
ALLURE— AMADOUER.
31
came allum'nare by the regular dropping
of the short vowel (§ 52). Allum'nare
again became allumer, by ran = m, as in
sem'nare, semer ; dom'na, dame, mn
also often becomes mm, as fem'na, femme
(Hist. Gram. p. 72). It. alluminare, Prov.
alhimenar, alhanar, will mark the transition
from L. alluminare to Fr. allumer. — Der.
allumeuT (§ 227), allumette (§ 281).
ALLURE, sf. gait, way of going (or dealing) ;
from aller; like coiffwe, soidllure, brochure,
etc., from coiffer, souiller, brocher (§ 183).
Allusion, sf. an allusion; from L. allu-
sionem.
Alluvion, sf. alluvium*; from L. alluvi-
onem.
Almanach, sm. an almanac; Low Lat.
almanachus, from Gr. a\ixiva)(a,, used in
3rd cent, by Eusebius for an almanac
(§ 21).
Alo§S, sm. the aloe. O. Fr. aloe, from L.
aloe.
ALOI. sm. a standard, quality (of coin) ; compd.
of a and loi, which in O. Fr. signified the
standard of coin, as still in Sp. For the
etymology of loi see that word.
ALORS, adv. then. See lors.
ALOSE, sf. a shad ; from L. alausa, which
was written also alosa. For au = o see
§ 107.
ALOUETTE, sf a lark, dim. of O. Fr. alone,
just as herbette is derived from herbe, cuvette
from cuve. (For the suffix -ette, see ablette.)
Here, as often, the primitive form is gone,
and the derivative, though dim. in form, has
the sense of the original word (see § 18).
Aloue is from L. alauda (as used by
Pliny for the sky-lark), a word borrowed by
the Romans from Gaul, and introduced into
Lat. by Caesar. (The true Lat. names for
the lark are galerita, corydalus.)
To get from alauda to aloue, the Lat.
drops the medial d after the accented vowel ;
as is found in the following cases: (l)
when the subsequent vowel remains, as in
invi(d)ia, envie; (2) when the subsequent
vowel is dropped, as in cru(d)us, cru,
§ 120.
The diphthong au is also changed into
ou : this diphthong was pronounced by the
Latins, not like Fr. 0, but a-ou ; thus for
aurum, taurus, the Romans said a-ou-
rum, ta-ourus, not orum, torus. This o
pronunciation was looked on as quite faulty
by the educated Romans, and grammarians
speak of it as common to peasants, and a
thing to be avoided, Festus tells us that
the Roman country-folks said orum for
aurum, oriculas for auriculas, etc. The
Fr. language, sprung from popular not from
Class. Lat., has kept the rustic pronuncia-
tion, as in aurum, or; ausare*, oser
(§ 107); and in certain secondary forma-
tions, as parole, paraula, secondary form
of parabola ; forger, faurcare, of fabri-
care; tole, taula, of tabula; somme,
sauma, of salma.
In all these words the au became, and
has continued to be ; in a certain num-
ber of words this was in O. Fr., and in
mod. Fr. has become ou (see also § 107).
The following is the complete list of
these changes: — laudo, Zo/^e; laudemia*,
louange ; aut, ou; audire, ouir; gau-
dere, jouir ; claus (for clavus), clou;
Cauda, couard ; inraucare *, enrouer;
colis (=caulis), chou; austarda (for
avistarda), outarde ; gauta *, joue.
ALOURDIR, va. to make heavy. See lourd.
ALOYAU, sm. a sirloin. Origin unknown
(§ 35).
t Alpaga, sm. alpaca; a kind of wool
got from the alpaga, a kind of llama in
South America.
Alphabet, S7«. the alphabet ; from L.
alphabeta. — Der. alphabetique.
Altercation, sf an altercation, dispute ;
from. L. altercationem.
Alt^rer, va. (i) to alter, (2) to be thirsty;
from scholastic Lat. alterare, deriv. of
alter ; as in Germ,, dnder?i comes from
ajider. Why or how alterer passed from
the sense of ' to change,' to that of ' to be
thirsty,' is a thing that has no explanation,
— Der. a//eration, -able,
Alteme, adj. alternate ; from L. alternus.
— Der. alterner, -ation, -atif, -ative, -ative-
ment.
+ Altesse, sf highness ; introduced in the
1 6th cent, from It. altezza (§ 25), Altesse
is a doublet of hautesse, q. v.
+ Altier, adj. haughty; introduced in the
l6th cent, from It. altiere (§ 25).
Altitude, sf height; from L. altitude.
+ Alto, sm. alto ; from It. alto (§ 25).
Alumine, sf alumina; from L. alumine.
— Der. aluminium.
ALUN, sm. alum ; from. L, alumen. For
-umen = -M« see § 226.
Alv6ole, sf alveole, a little channel ; from
L. alveolus,
AMADOUER, va. to coax, cajole; a compd,
of madouer *, a word of Germ, origin, from
Old Scand, mata, Dan. 7nade, to bait, allure
22
A MA IGRIR—A MBR OISIE.
(§ 20). — Der. amadou. Although there is
no relation, as to meaning, between ama-
douer and amadou, it is nevertheless certain
that the latter is derived from the former.
In It., adescare comes from esca, which
means both bait and touchwood, as is also
the case with Lat. esca. These relations
show that the same metaphor which con-
nects amadouer with amadou exists in
several languages ; and this comparison of
metaphors makes clear what is the origin of
the word, though we may not be able to
explain it. See also § 15.
AMAIGRIR, va. to emaciate. See maigrir.
— Der. amat^ssement.
AMALGAME, sm. an amalgam. Origin un-
known (§ 35). — Der. amalgamer.
AMANDE, sf. an almond. O. Fr. amende,
corruption of L. amygdalTim. Amyg-
dSlum, contracted into amydlum, ac-
cording to the rule of the Lat. accent
(§ 51), first reduced the Lat. gd into d,
as in Magdalena, Madeleine (§ 131).
Amyd'lum afterwards underwent the in-
sertion of n, and became amyndlum,
just as, in Class. Lat., lanterna was used
for laterna, thensaurus for thesaurus,
rendere for reddere (in the Salic Law),
Inculisma at early times for Iculisma.
This may be seen in the App. ad Probum,
•Amygdala non amiddola,' and in the Cap,
de Villis, ' Volumus quod habeat pomarios
avellanarios amandalarios.' Amynd'-
lum or amindlTim produced the O. Fr.
amende, by in = en, as in infantem, enfant;
in en (§ 72). Amende finally became
a/nande in Fr. by en = an, as we see in
lingua, langue, singularis, sanglier, etc.,
which words were written in O. Fr. with
more etymological propriety lengue, sen-
glier, etc.
The reader will have noticed that the
laws of phonetics have enabled us to ex-
plain every letter of this word, except the
Lat. 1, which disappears: it is in the
anomalous dropping of this 1 that the
corruption of the word amande consists
(as we have seen in § 172, note 2).
We have seen (§ 168) that Lat. dl is
always assimilated in Fr. into II or I; so
that amind'lum ought to have produced,
not amande, but amanlle, amanle ; just as
hrandler has become branler. Amande
is a doublet of amygdale, q. v. — Der.
amandiex (§ 198).
Amant, sw. a lover; from L. amantem.
Amant is a doublet oi aimant.
Amaranthe, sf. amaranth ; from L. amar-
antus.
AMARRER, va, to moor ; D^MARRER, va.
to unmoor, cast off; compds. of prim.
marrer*, which comes from Neth. marren
(§ 20). — Der. amarre, amamge.
AMASSER, va. to amass. See masse. — Der.
amas (verbal subst., § 1 84), ramasser (Hist.
Gram. p. 179), xamas, ramassis.
Amateur, sm. an amateur; from L. ama-
torem.
Amaurose, sf. (Med.) amaurosis ; from Gr.
dfiaijpojais.
Amazone, sf. an amazon; from L. ama-
zon.
Ambages, sf. pi. ambages, circumlocution,
prevarication; from L, ambages.
t Am.baBSade, sf. an embassy; in the
15th cent, ambaxade, a word not found in
Fr. before the 14th cent., and which is
shown to be foreign by its ending -ade
(unknown in Fr., which has -ee for -ade.
See § 201). It comes from Sp. ambaxada,
a word related to the low L. aiubaxiata.
This word is .derived from ambaxiare,
ambactiare, formed from ambactia, a
very common term in the Salic Law,
meaning Merov. Lat. a mission, embassy.
Ambactia comes from am.bactus (a ser-
vant who is sent with a message).
For the enlargement of meaning see
§ 13. — Der. ambassadeur, -drice (§ 228).
AMBE, (l) adj. both, (2) sm. a pair ; from
L. ambo. In the middle ages the phrases
ambes mains, ambes parts, etc., were used
for deux mains, les deux parts. The word
survives as a gambling term; thus fai gagne
un ambe a la loterie, i. e. 'I have drawn
two figures,' ' a pair of chances.'
Ambiant, adj. ambient, surrounding ; from
L. ambientem.
Ambigu, (i) adj. ambiguous, (2) sm. a
medley; from L. ambiguus. — Der. am-
biguity.
Ajnbitieux, adj. ambitious; from L. am-
bitiosus.
Ambition, sf. ambition ; from L. ambit io-
nem. — Der. ambitionner.
AMBLER, va. to amble ; from L. ambtilare.
For the contraction of signification see § 13.
For the dropping of the u see § 52. —
Der. amble (verbal subst., § 1 84).
+ Ambre, sm. amber; introduced in the
time of the Crusades, from Ar. anb'r (§ 30).
— Der. ambrer.
Ambroisie, sf. ambrosia; from L. am-
brosia.
AMB ULA NT—AMITlS.
23
Ambulant, ao?/. strolling; from L. ambu-
lant em. — Der. amb2ehnce.
A ME, s/. the soul ; from L. anima. Aniraa
being accented on the first syllable loses the
atonic i (see § 51), and is contracted into
an'ma, whence O. Fr. anme. In Joinville
the word takes the form amme, by assimi-
lating nm into mm (§ 168), a regular step,
known even in Lat. (as in immemor for
inmemor, immigrare for inmigrare,
immaturus for inmaturus, etc.) In the
15th cent, amme became am£, by the re-
duction of the 7nm into m, a process marked
by the addition of the circumflex on the a
in^mod. Fr.
AME, adj. well-beloved ; from L. amatus.
For -atus = -e see § 201. Ame is 2.
doublet of aime.
Am^liorer, va. to ameliorate, improve ;
from L. ameliorare. — Der. ameliora-
tion.
+ Amen, sm. amen ; introduced from Heb.
into Church Lat. of the early ritual (§ 30).
AMENAGER, va. to parcel out, dispose of.
See menager. — Der. amenagement.
AMENDER, va. to amend, better ; from L.
emendare. (For the unusual change of
e into a see Hist. Gram. p. 48.)
Accented e becomes a in per, par;
lemus, rame; \a.certa., lezard.
Atonic Lat. e becomes a in fSrocem,
farouche; emendare, amender ; perga-
menum, parchemin. In common Lat. we
find lucarna for lucerna; marcadus for
mercatus in Merov. Chartularies. — Der.
amende (verbal subst., § 184), amendement,
amendAhle.
AMENER, va. to bring, conduct. See mener.
— Der. ra7nener.
Am.enit§, ff. amenity, pleasantness ; from
L. amoenitatem.
AMER, adj. bitter ; from L. amarus. For
a = e see § 54. — Der. amerem&nt.
AMERTUME, sf. bitterness ; from L. amari-
tudinem. Amaritiidinein first lost its
atonic i (§ 52): then, just as amarus be-
came amer, amar'tudinem changed its
second a into e (§ 54). In the suffix
-tidinem the atonic 1 disappears, according
to the law of Lat. accent (§ 51), and it
becomes -ud'nera, which becomes Fr.
-time: so consiietiidinem, coutume; in-
cudinem, enclume (§ 234). This change
doubtless took place before the beginning
of the Fr. language, as we find in 6th-cent.
documents the forms constuma, costuma,
for cons'tudinem, consuetudinem.
Am^thyste, sf. the amethyst ; from L.
amethystus.
AMEUBLEMENT, sm. furniture. See meu-
ble.
AMEUBLIR, va. to furnish. See meuhle.
AMEUTER, va. to break dogs to hunt in
pack, to get them together ; a hunting-
term which has passed into common speech
(see § 13). Amenter is 'to set the dogs
en meute,' to collect them. For etymology
of ameuter, see meute.
AMI, S7n. a friend ; from L. amicus. The
medial c after the accented vowel dis-
appears, carrying with it the vowel that
follows it, as in inimicus, ennemi; focus,
feu (§ 212). When the medial c after the
accented vowel is followed by an a, that
vowel remains in Ff., as in ami(c)a, amie
(§ 212).
AMIABLE, adj. friendly, amicable ; from L.
am.icabilis. For the loss of the Lat. c
see § 129 ; for -aibUis = -able see § 250.
Amiante, sm. amianthus; from L. amian-
tus.
Amical, adj. friendly; from L. amicalis.
— Der. amzca/ement.
Amict, sm. an amice ; from L. amictus.
Amidon, sm. starch ; corruption of L. amy-
lum (§ 172). In the 9th cent, this word
is found in the form amydum. — Der.
am,idonneT, -ier.
AMINCIR, va. to make thin. See mince. —
Der. aminchsement.
fAmiral, sm. an admiral; introduced
soon after the Crusades, from Ar. It
answers to the low Lat. amiralius, which
also is from Ar. (§ 30). — Der. amirah^,
which is amiraute in mod. Fr. For \ = u,
see §^89, note I, and § 157-
AMITIE, sf. friendship ; in O. Fr. amistie,
which is formed through amiste from
amista (for a = e = ie, cp. gravis, griff;
pietatem, pilie ; inimicitatem, inimitie,
§ 54): an earlier form is amistet, which
answers to It. amista, Sp. amistad, Cata-
lan amistat, and comes, as do these three
words, from L. amicitatem., a common
Lat. form of amicitia. (Amicitas was
formed from amicus, like mendicitas
from mendicus, antiquitas from anti-
quus, etc.)
In passing from amicitatem to amitie,
or rather to O. Fr. amiste, we find three
philological changes: (i) the i just before the
accented vowel, amic(i)tatem, disappears
(for the law, see § 52); (2) in the thus
contracted Lat. word amic'tatem, final
H
AMMONIA QUE — ANA CHOR^TE.
-atein = -^ (see § 330), and o = s, as we
have seen it in the soft Lat. c under
agencer: it is not so common in the case
of the low Lat. o (§ 129).
Lat. hard c becomes s in Fr., or more
usually the guttural becomes a sibilant, as
may be seen in the following : —
I. o = s, as cingulum, san^/tf.
a. c = ss,as in junicem, gSmisse.
3. c = «, as crucem, croix.
4. c = z, as lacerta, lizard.
Amistid finally became amitiS by sup-
pression of the s. (See Hist. Gram. p. 81.)
ArnTnoniaque, sf. ammonia. O. Fr. am-
moniac, from L. ammoniacus (sal) (§ 180).
— Der. ammoniaca}.
Anmistie, sf. an amnesty ; from Gr. dji-
vrjcTTia (§ 22). — Der. omn/srier,
AMOINDRIR, va. to lessen. See moindre. —
Der. a;wom(/nssement.
AMOLLIR, va. to soften. See mou. — Der.
amoZ/issement.
AMONCELER, va. to heap up, amass. See
monceau.
AMONT, adv. up stream. See aval.
AMORCE, sf. a bait, lure ; corruption of
O. Fr. amorse, strong p. p. (see § 187) of
amordre, which is an O. Fr. compd. of
mordre. Amorse comes from amordre, like
entorse from entordre (see tordre). The
original meaning is * that which lures,'
makes fish, etc. take the bait, bite. — Der.
omorcer.
AMORTIR, va. to slacken, soothe, deaden.
See mort. — Der. amorrissement (§ 225,
note 4).
AMOUR, sm. love ; from L. amorem. For
o = ou see § 81. — Der. amourette.
+ Amouracher (S'), vpr. to be en-
amoured; introduced in the 1 6th cent, by
the Italians (§ 25). Amouracher is formed
from amourache, which from It. amorracio,
an ill-regulated passion.
AMOUREUX, adv. loving, amorous; from
L. amorosus. For o = om see § 81; for
-OB\ia = -eux, cp. spinosus, epinetix, § 229.
This suffix was afterwards employed in the
Fr. language to form new derivatives which
have no corresponding Lat. words, as hetir-
eux, honteux, etc. which come straight
from Fr. heur, honte, etc. — Der. amoureuse-
ment.
Amovible, adj. removable; from L. aftio-
vibilis. For the dropping of the penult i,
see § 51. — Der, inamovible, inamovibilite.
Amphibie, adj. amphibious; from Gr.
dijupi^ios.
AmphibolOgie, «/". ambiguousness of lan-
guage; from L. amphibologia.
AMPHIGOURI, sm. nonsense, rigmarole.
Origin unknown (§ 35).
A TTi phithe&.tr e, sm. an amphitheatre ; from
L. amphitheatrum.
Amphitiyon, sm. an amphitryon, host (at
dinner), alluding to the saying of Sosie in
Moli^re's Amphitryon, 3. 5, Le veritable
Amphitryon est I' Amphitryon oil Von dine.
(§ 3.S.)
Amphore, sf. an amphora; from L. am-
phora.
AMPLE, adj. ample, full, copious; from L.
amplus. — Der. amplement, -eur.
Ampliation, sf. an official copy, duplicate ;
from L. ampliationem.
Amplifier, va. to amplify, enlarge on ; from
L. amplificare. For the loss of c, see
Hist. Gram. p. 37. Am.plification, sf.
exaggeration ; from L. amplificatio-
nem.
Am.plitude, sf. amplitude; from L. am-
plitude.
AMPOULE, sf (I) a little vessel, (2) the holy
ampulla ; from L. ampulla, which signifies
(l) a little bottle, and (2) a small tumour or
boil. The sense of 'bottle' is still to be seen
in the Sainte Ampoule, which held the sacred
oil for the consecration of the kings of
France. ^ For u = om see § 90.
AMPOULE, adj. bombastic ; from L. am-
pullatus. For u = om see § 90 ; for
atus = e see § 201. The suffix -atus
always becomes Fr. e, as in pratum, pre;
curatum, cure (§ 200). The suffix -ata
drops the t and becomes ee, as in annata,
annee (§ 201).
Amputer, z/a. to amputate; from L. ampu-
tare. — Der. amputation.
Am.lllette, s/. an amulet; from. L. amu-
letum, a talisman (Pliny).
AMURE, sf. a tack (of a ship). Origin un-
known (§ 35).
AMUSER, va. to amuse ; compd. of O. Fr.
verb muser (preserved in its deriv. musard).
Origin unknown (§ 35). — Der. amusement,
amusewr.
Amygdale, sf the tonsil ; from L. amyg-
dalus, an almond, as this gland is almond-
shaped. A mygdale is a doublet of amande.
AN, sm. a year ; from L. annus. For
nn = n cp. v annus, van; pannus, pan;
bannum *, ban.
Ajiachordte, sm. an anchoret ; from L,
anachoreta, from Gr. avaxoip'r}7^s, one
who withdraws from the world.
A NA CHR ONISME — ANl VRISME.
25
Anadironisme, sm. an anachronism ; from
Gr. avaxpoviOfibs, a chronological error.
Anagramme, sf. an anagram ; from Gr.
dvdypafi/jia, a transposition of letters.
Analogie, ff. analogy ; from L. analogia.
Analogue, adj. analogous; from L. ana-
logus.
Analyse, sf. analysis; from Gr. dvdXvais,
the resolution of a whole into its parts,
from dvaXvoJ. — Der. analydque (§ 247,
note 4).
+ Ananas, sm. a pine-apple; introduced
by travellers from the Indies (§ 31).
An archie, sf. anarchy ; from" Gr. dvapxia.
Anath^me, sm, an anathema ; from Gr.
dvddifxa, an exposure (to the public curse).
— Der. anathemzViStr.
Anatomie, sf. anatomy ; from L. ana-
tomia, which from Gr. dvaTOfxfi. — Der.
a«a/omiste, -ique.
ANCETRE, sm. an ancestor ; from L. ante-
cessor. Antecessor, according to the
rule in § 52, loses its atonic e, and is con-
tracted into ant'cessor, which is written
ancessor in a Lat. document of the year
980.
Ancessor, accented on the penult, and
consequently proncd. anc^ss'r, became in
O. Fr. ancestre, by change of sr into str,
a t being euphonically inserted. (See Hist.
Gram. p. 74.) This insertion was not
done by the Fr. language, but by the Lat.,
which transformed esserix, tonsorix, into
estrix, tonstrix. The form Istrael for
Israel is to be found in a biblical MS.
of the 5th cent., and the Fr, has car-
ried on this tendency in ^tre, O. Fr. eslre,
from ess're; paraitre, O. Fi. paraistre, from
pares're ; croirfe, O. Fr. croistre, from
cres're* ; connaiire, O. Fr. connaistre, from
cognos're ; pattre, O. Fr. paistre, from
pas're*; naitre, O. Fr. naistre, from nas're ;
coudre, O. Fr. cousdre, from cons're ; ladre,
laz'rus; tistre, tex're. The common peo-
ple, ever faithful to their instincts, con-
tinue this euphonic transformation, and say,
castrole for casserole, etc. Ancetre is one
of the rare nominatives retained in the
French language ; see Hist, Gram. p. 96.
ANCHE, sf. a reed, pipe ; from O. H. G.
anche, which was first the leg-bone, then a
pipe; just like tibia, which was first the
bone of the leg, then a pipe, then a flute
(§ 15). Anche is a doublet of hanche, q. v.
+ Anchois, sm. anchovy, formerly an-
choie; introduced about the 15th cent, from
Sp. anchoa (§ 26).
ANCIEN, adj. ancient, old ; from L. anti-
anus * (an adj. derived from ante, and to
be found in Papal bulls of the nth cent.)
For ti = ci, see agencer. The suffix -anus
usually becomes -aih in Fr., as in humanus,
humain, § 198. But -anus usually be-
comes -ten, -yen, when preceded in Lat. by
a medial consonant, which is dropped in Fr.,
as we see in de(c)anus, doyen, etc. § 198.
— Der. ancienneie.
ANCRE, sf. an anchor ; from L. ancora.
The atonic o of 6ncli6ra disappears, ac-
cording to the strict rule of the Lat. accent
(§ 51), as we see also in such words as
arbor, arbre, etc.
+ Andante, sm. (Mus.) an andante, slow
movement ; an It. word which properly
signifies 'going,' 'walking' (§ 25).
ANDOUILLE, sf. chitterlings, corruption of
O. Fr. endouille, which comes from L.
inductilis, which in low Lat. glossaries
is given for a ' sausage,' and comes from L.
inducere. Inductilis is properly a gut
into which minced meat has been intro-
duced (inductus).
In passing from inductilis to the O. Fr.
endouille, there have been four philological
changes: — (l) in into en, a regular tran-
sition, as in infantem, enfant (§ 72); (2)
ductilis was at first regularly contracted
into duct'lis (§ 51) ; (3) this was changed
into ducllis by assimilation of the t'l into
// (§ 268), and its change into cl, a change
which occurred in Lat. (the Roman people
changed vet'lus, vetulus ; sit'la, situla,
into vec'lus, sicla); (4) ducllis became
douille, by cl = il (Hist. Gram. p. 71),
and VL — ou (§ 90). So too sicla he-
c?Lme seille ; v e c\us, vieil; and volat'lia,
volatile. — Der. andouillette.
ANDOUILLER, sm. an antler. Origin un-
^ known (§ 35).
ANE, sm. an ass. O. Fr. asne, from L. asinus.
For the loss of the short i see § 51 ; for
the loss of the s, and for the circumflex
accent, see Hist. Gram. p. 81. — Der. awesse
(§ 222), anon (§ 231), anerie (§ 244,
note 2).
ANEANTIR, va. to annihilate. See neant. —
Der. aneanlissement (§ 225, note 5).
Anecdote, sf an anecdote, from Gr. dven-
80TOS, that which has never yet been given
out, kept secret. — Der. anecdoiique (§ 247,
note 4).
Anemone, sf. the anemone ; from L. ane-
mone.
An^vrisme, sm. an aneurism; in the 15th
a6
A NFRA CTUE UX — A NNONCER.
cent, an^vrysme, from Gr. ayfvpvfffm, a
dilatation (of the veins).
Anfractueux, adj. crooked, tortuous ; from
L. anfractuosus. — Der. anfractuos\t6.
ANGE, sm. an angel ; from L. angelus.
Angdlus became ange, according to the
law of the Lat. accent (§ 51). Ange is
a doublet of angelus.
Ang61ique, (i) adj, angelic, (2) sf. the
angelica; from L. angel icus. The plant
called the • angelica ' received this name
from the excellence ascribed to it by l6th-
cent. physicians, who believed that it would
cure the stings of insects, and serpents'
bites.
Angine, sf. (Med.) angina (pectoris) ; from
L. angina.
ANGLE, sf. an angle ; from L. angulus.
For the loss of the penult, ti, see § 51. —
Der. anguleux, from L. angulosus (for
-os\xa = -etix see § 229); angulaire, from
L. angularis.
ANGOISSE, sf. anguish, pang ; from L. an-
gustia. For st = ss cp. testonem*,
tesson (§ 168).
This very uncommon reduction of st
into s was known to the Lat. : we find
pos-legem for post-legem in Roman
land-surveyors, and posquam for post-
quam in some gloss writers.
Angustia, thus changed into angusia,
became angoisse, by the change of Lat. u
into oi, which is often caused by the attrac-
tion of an i, as in fusionem, foison (§
96) ; but it also occurs when u is alone,
(l) if accented, as in crticem, croix, etc.
(§ 91); (2) or of u atonic, as in muc^re,
moisir.
"t Angora, sf. angora, a word of historic
origin (§ 33), a kind of cat brought from
Angora in Asia Minor (L. Ancyredes).
The Angora cat, the Angora goat and
rabbit, are notable for the fineness and
length of the hair of their coat.
ANGUILLE, sf. an eel ; from L. angixilla.
ANICROCHE, sf. a hindrance, obstacle; in
the 16th cent, hanicroche, something that
catches one as on a hook. Tous ces
gens-la, says Regnard, sont faits de croche
et d^anicroche. Anicroche originally, then,
meant the same as croche, a crook, quaver.
In Rabelais, hanicroche is used for the
sharp point of a hook, lis aiguisoient
piques, hallebardes, hanicroches. Origin
unknown (§ 35).
ANIER, sm. an ass-driver. O. Fr. asnier,
from L. asinarius, by dropping the short
i (§ 52), and by a = ie (as'-narius =
asnier), a change to be seen also in can is,
chien, etc. (§ 54) ; and in all Lat. suf-
fixes in -aris, -arius, which become -er,
-ier, as primarius, premier (§§ 197, 198).
The suffix -ier, perhaps the most common in
Fr., has formed many deriv. which had no
original in Lat., as barriere from barre, per-
ruqiiier ^xom perruque, arbale trier from arba-
lete, etc. This suffix usually marks (l) trades,
boutiquier, potier, batelier, berger, archer,
ecuyer, viguier; (2) objects of daily use,
sablier, encrier, foyer, etc. ; (3) vegetables,
laurier, grenadier, figuier, pommier, poirier,
peuplier, cerisier, etc.
Animadversion, sf. animadversion ; from
L. animadversionem.
Animal, sm. an animal; from L. animal.
— Der. animaliser, animalite, animalcule'
(§ 154, note 4).
Animer, va. to animate ; from L. animare.
— Der. a«2TOation, lanimer (Hist. Gram,
p. 179).
Anis, sm. anise, aniseed ; from L. anisum.
— Der. aniser, anisette (§ 282).
Ankylose, sf. (Med.) ankylosis ; from Gr.
dyKvXojms. — Der. ankylose.
Annales, sf. pi. annals; from L. annales.
Der. a?tnaliste (§ 217).
Annate, sf. annates, yearly income ; from
L. an n at a* (found in medieval documents
in the sense of yearly revenue).
ANNEAU, sm. a ring ; from L. annellus
(in Horace). For -ellus = -ea2^ see § 204.
Anneau in O. Fr. was annel, a form which
is retained in the deriv. annelet, anneler,
annelnxe.
ANNEE, sf. a year; from Merov. Lat. an-
nata, which from L. annus. For -ata =
-ee see § 201. Annee is a doublet of
annate, q. v.
Annexe, sf. an annexe; from L. annexus.
— Der. annexex, annexion.
Annihiler, va. to annihilate; from L. an-
nihilare.
Anniversaire, adj. anniversary; from L.
anniversarius.
ANNONCER, va. to announce ; from L. an-
nuntiare. — Der. annonce (verbal subst.,
§ 184).
For -tiare = -cer, see agencer. The
change of u into is to be found in very
many words : the accented Lat, u becomes
when long by position, as in columba,
colombe (§ 97). The atonic Lat. u be-
comes o, when short, as in ciineata,
cognee, etc. (§ 93) ; when long by nature,
ANNOTER — ANTIMOINE.
27
as in frumentum, frotnent, etc. (§ 96);
when long by position, as in urtica, ortie,
etc. (§ 97).
This change of the Lat. u into most
frequently occurs (as we have just seen)
before nasals and liquids, following a u in
position : it is also found in the Lat. ; thus
volpes, volsus, voltus, volnus, volt,
exist by the side of vulpes, vulsus, vultus,
vulnus, vult. In Old Lat. the finals -us,
-um, -unt, and the sufBxes -ulus, -ula, are
usually -OS, -om, -ont, -olos, -ola ; we
also find popolus, tabola, vincola, non-
tiare, sont, consolere, for populus,
tabula, vincula, nuntiare, sunt, con-
sul ere, in the oldest Roman inscriptions.
The rostral column has on it pop lorn,
diebos, navebos, primos, for populum,
diebus, navibus, primus : we may also
mention the beginning of the well-known
inscription on the tomb of the Scipios,
' Hone oino ploirume consentiont duonoro
optumo fuise viro, Luciom Scipione, fi-
lios Barbati, consol.' The Graffiti of
Pompeii, and certain inscriptions of the
later Empire, have also dolcissima, mon-
do, tomolo, for dulcissima, mundo,
tumulo ; and solcus, fornus, moltus,
sordus, polchrum, colpam are found in
texts of the 5th and 6th cent. Lastly,
several Merov. diplomas have titolum,
singoli, somus, fondamentis, polsatur,
onde, for singuli, sumus, fundamentis,
pulsatur, unde.
Annoter, va. to annotate; from L. anno-
tare. — Der. a««o/ation.
Annuaire, sm. a year-book; from L. an-
nuarium.
ANNUEL, adj. annual; from L. annualis.
See 071.
Annuite, s/. an annuity; from L. annui-
tatem.
Annulaire, adj. annular; from L. annu-
larius.
Aimuler, va. to annul ; from L. annullare,
to annihilate (used by S. Jerome). — Der.
annuhixon.
ANOBLIR, va. to ennoble ; -ISSEMENT, sm.
ennoblement (§ 225, note 5). See noble.
Auodin, {i)adj. soothing; (2) sm. an ano-
dyne; from L. anodynos, painless (used by
Marcellus Empiricus).
Anomal, adj. anomalous ; from Gr. dvw/jia-
\os — Der. anomalie.
ANON, sm. a young ass. See ane. — Der.
dnonner.
Anonyme, (1) adj. anonymous, (2) sf. an
anonymous author ; from L. anony-
mus.
ANSE, sf. a handle ; from L. ansa.
Antagonisme, sm. antagonism ; from Gr.
avTayuviafia. — Der. antagonists (§ 217).
Antarctique, adj. antarctic; from Gr.
dvrapKTLKds.
Ant6c6dent, adj. antecedent; from L.
antecedentem.
Antechrist, sm. antichrist ; in Rabelais an-
tichrist ; from Gr. dvTixpiOTos.
Ant6diluvien, adj. antediluvian ; imitated
from antediluvianus.
Antenne, sf. an antenna; from L. antenna.
Ant6p6nulti§ine, (l) adj. antepenulti-
mate, (2) sf. the antepenult, that which
precedes (ante) the penultimate. See
penultieme.
Ant6rieur, adj. anterior; from L. anterior.
— Der. anterionte.
Anthdre, sf. an anther ; from Gr. dvOrjpos,
from dvOos.
Anthologie, sf. anthology ; from Gr. dvOo-
\oyia.
Anthracite, sf. anthracite, stone coal ; de-
rived from L. anthracem. Anthracites
is used by Pliny for a precious stone.
Anthrax, sm. (Med.) anthrax ; from L.
anthrax.
Anthropologie, sf. anthropology; from
Gr. dvOpoorros, and \6yos.
Anthropophage, adj. anthropophagous;
from Gr. dvOpojiros and (pajeiv.
Antichambre, sf. an antechamber; from
L. ante, and Fr. chambre, a learned and
irregular compd.
Anticiper, va. to anticipate; from L. an-
ticipare.
Antidate, sf an antedate; from L. ante,
and Fr. date, a false date earlier than the
right one. — Der. antidatex.
Antidote, sm. an antidote; from L. anti-
dotum.
ANTIENNE, sf. an anthem ; from L. anti-
ph.ona (chant of alternate voices). Anti-
(ph)6na lost its medial ph (/), a loss
very uncommon in Fr. and only met with
in three other words, viz. scro(f)ellae*,
ecrouelles; Stephanus, Etienne ; bi(f)a-
cem*, biais. Antienne is a doublet of
antiphone, q. v.
For o = e (a very rare change), cp. non-
illud, nennil.
Antilope, sf. the antelope. Origin un-
known (§ 35).
Antimoine, sm. antimony. Origin un-
known (§ 35).
28
A NTINOMIE — A POSTOLIQUE.
Antinomie, sf. antinomy ; from Gr. dyri-
vofua.
Antipathie, sf. antipathy ; from Gr. &vti-
irdOfia.
Antiphonaire, sf. an anthem-book ; from
L. antiphonarium from antiphona,
antiphone, which is a doublet of antienne,
q.v.
Antiphrase, sf. an antiphrase; from Gr.
ovr'nppaais. See phrase.
Antipode, sm. antipodes; from L. anti-
podes.
Antiquaille, sf. an old curiosity; intro-
duced in the 1 6th cent, from It. anticaglia
(§ ^5).
Antique, adj. ancient, antique; from L.
antiquus. — Der. an/Zyr/aire, antiqmXe. An-
tique is a doublet of O. Fr. anti, antif.
An-tithdse, sf. antithesis; from Gr. avri-
deais. See these.
Antonomase, sf. (Rhet.) antonomasia;
from Gr. avTojuo/Maia.
Afltre, sm. a cave, den; from L. antrum.
Anus, sm. (Med.) the anus; from L. anus.
Anxi6t6, sf. anxiety; from L. anxieta-
tem.
Anxieux, adj. anxious ; from L. anxiosus.
Aorte, sf. (Med.) the aorta ; from Gk. doprr]
(Aristotle).
AOUT, sm. august. O. Fr. aoust, Pro v. aost,
It. agosto; from L. augustus. ' For the
fall of g in augustus, aout, see Hist. Gram,
p. 82 ; for au = see § 106 (this o is
dropped unusually to a, as in orichalcum,
archal) ; for u = ou see § 90 ; for the sup-
pression of the s see Hist. Gram. p. 81.
AoUt is a doublet of atigiiste, q. v.
APAISER, va. to appease ; der. from paix
through the O. Fr. form pais. See paix. —
Der. apaisement.
APANAGE, sm. an apanage, now restricted
to a domain given to princes of the blood
royal for their sustenance : in feudal law it
meant any pension or alimentation. Apa-
nage is derived from the O. Fr. verb apaner,
to nourish ; apanage being derived from
apaner, like badinage from badiner, patenlin-
age from pateliner, savonnage from savon-
ner, etc. (§ 248).
Apaner is the feudal Lat. apanare,
adpanare, from panis.
+ Aparte, adv. aside; two unaltered Lat.
words (a, parte).
Apathie, sf. apathy ; from Gr. andSfia. —
Der. apath\(\\it.
APERCEVOIR, va. to perceive. See perce-
voir. — Der. apergvi, aperception.
Ap6rltif, adj. aperient ; from L. aperitivus,
from aperire.
Apetisser, va. to make little. See petit.
— Der. lapelisser.
Aphorisme, sm. an aphorism; from Gr.
d<popi(Tix6s.
Aphthe, sm. (Med.) thrush, mouth-ulcer ;
from L. aphtha.
Api, sm. rosiness (of apples) ; from L. ap-
piana. Pliny uses the phrase * appiana
mala' for ' rosy-cheeked apples.'
APITOYER, va. to touch with pity ; compd.
of a (Hist. Gram. p. 177) and a primitive
pitoyer (which survives in pitoyable, impitoy-
able). Pitoyer is derived from pitie, q. v.
APLANIR, va. to make level. See plane.
— Der. a/)/amssement (§ 255, note 5).
APLATIR, va. to flatten. See plat.— Der.
appl a/i^sement (§ 255, note 5).
APLOMB, sm. (Archit.) perpendicularity (as
of a wall), thence stability, self-possession ;
derived from a and plomb, because one
plumbs a wall with a leaden plummet.
Apocalypse, sf. the apocalypse ; from Gr.
dnoKoXvipis. — Der. apocalyptique.
Apocope, sf. (Gram.) apocope; from Gr.
dtTOKOirrj.
Apocryphe, adj. apocryphal; from Gr.
drroKpvcpos.
Apog6e, sm. (Astron.) apogee, greatest dis-
ance from earth ; from Gk. dnoyaiov.
Apolog6tique, adj. apologetic; from Gr.
dnoKoyrjTiKds.
Apologie, sf. apology ; from Gr. dvoXoyia.
— Der. apologiste (§ 217).
Apologue, sm. an apologue, fable; from
Gr. dnoKoyos.
Apophthegme, sm. an apophthegm ; from
Gr. dn6<pO€yfw..
Apoplexie, sf. apoplexy; from Gr. drro-
Apostasie, sf apostasy ; from Gr. dnoaTa-
aia. — Der. apostat, from Gr. dTroffrdTTjs.
APOSTER, va. to place, post (for a bad pur-
pose) ; compd. of poster, q. v.
Apostille, sf a postil, postscript; compd. of
a and pastille, which is simply a transcript of
the schol. Lat. post ill a (meaning explana-
tion, subjoined annotation). The full phrase
is post ilia [verba auctoris]. Several
medieval treatises have this word in their
titles ; as ' Postillae in Psalterium,'
'Postillae Morales,' etc. — Der. apostiller.
Apostolat, sm. the apostolate ; from L.
apostolatus (Tertullian).
Apostolique, adj. apostolical ; from L.
apostolicus.
APOSTR OPHE—A PPOINTER .
29
Apostrophe, (i) (Rhet.) an apostrophe,
rebuke, quick interruption ; from Gk. avo-
arpocpij (used of an orator who turns aside
to address any one) : (2) (Gram.) the or-
thographic sign called an apostrophe ; from
L. apostrophus.
Apostume, sm. an abscess ; corruption
(§ 172) of aposteme, which is from Gr.
Apoth.6ose, sf. apotheosis, deification ; from
Gr. airoOiOJOLS.
Apothicaire, sm. an apothecary ; from
L, apothecarius, one who keeps an
apotheca, or shop. Apothicaire is a
doublet of boutiquier, q. v.
APOTRE, sm. an apostle. O. Fr. apostre,
still earlier apostle ; from L. apostolus.
Apostolus, contracted into apost'lus
after the law of Lat. accent (see § 51), pro-
duced the O. Fr. apostle, which became
apostre by changing I into r, as in ulmus,
orme, (§ 157), and, at the beginning of a
word, in the single example of lusciniola,
rossigfiol, which is written .ruse inio la in
a 7th-cent. text (§ 157).
This change of / into r was not un-
known to the Romans, who said either
palilia or parilia, caeluleus or caeru-
leus. ^
APPARAITRE, va. to become visible, ap-
pear, look, seem ; from popular L. appa-
rescere. Appar6sc(e)re being accented
on the antepenult, became regularly (§51)
appares're ; this gave the O. Fr. appar-
oistre, (i) by ST — str (see under ancetre,
and Hist. Gram. p. 74), (2) by e = oi and
oi = ai (§ 63). For the loss of the s {appar-
aistre, apparaitre), see Hist. Gram. p. 81.
Apparat, sm. pomp, state ; from L. appa-
ratus.
APPAREIL, sm. preparation ; verbal subst.
from appareiller (§ 184).
APPAREILLER, va. to pair, match, to put
together. For the etymology see pareil;
for ad = ap see Hist. Gram. p. 177 and
§ 168. — Der. appareil.
APPAREMMENT, cc?i/. apparently; formed
from the adj. apparent. On apparemment
for apparentment see § 168.
Apparent, adj. apparent; from L. appa-
rentem.
APPARENTER, va. to ally by marriage. See
parent.
APPARIER, va. to match, pair. See paire.
Appariteur, sm. an apparitor ; from L.
apparitorem (a servant, or inferior officer,
attached to the Roman magistrates).
Apparition, sf. an apparition ; from L.
apparitionem.
APPAROIR, vn. to be apparent ; from L.
apparere. For e = oz see § 62.
APPARTEMENT, sm. an apartment; from
low L. appartiiuentuni.
APPARTENIR, vn. to appertain, belong;
from L. adpertinere, appertinere,
compd. of pertinere (to belong, in Ter-
tullian). For e = a see amender and Hist.
Gram. p. 48; for i=^e see Hist. Gram,
p. 49 ; for accented e^i see Hist. Gram,
p. 50.
APPAS, sm. pi. attractions, charms, anything
that allures : a pi. word simply because
it is in fact the pi. of appat. Appdt, O. Fr,
appast, was then in pi. appasts, of which
appas is a corruption. For the etymology
see appat, which is its doublet.
APPAT, sm. a bait, allurement ; O. Fr. appast,
medieval Lat. appastum, adpastum
(food to allure game or fish), compd. of
class. Lat. pastum. — Der. appdter. Ap-
pdt is a doublet of appas, q. v.
APPAUVRIR, va. to impoverish ; -ISSE-
MENT, sm. impoverishment. See pauvre.
APPEAU, sm. a bird-call, decoy-bird, formerly
appel (as beau has come from bel, § 1 5 7),
an instrument which, by imitating a bird's
note, draws it into a snare. Appeau is
then only a secondary form of appel, q. v.
APPEL, sm. a call, appeal ; verbal subst. of
appeler.
APPELER, va. to call ; from L. appellare.
— Der. appel.
Appellation, sf. an appellation, naming,
appeal; from L. appellationem.
Appendice, sm. an appendix ; from L.
appendicem.
APPENDRE, va. to hang up; from L. ap-
pendere. For the dropping of the penult.
Lat. e. see § 51.
APPENTIS, sm. a shed, pent-house ; from L.
appendicium, deriv. of appendere.
APPESANTIR, va. to make heavy, weigh
down . See pesant.
App6tit, sm. appetite; from L. appetitus.
— Der. appetissznt.
Applaudir, va. to applaud ; from L. ap-
plaudere. — Der. applaud\%s&mQi\t (§ 225,
note 5).
Appliquer, va. to apply; from L. appli-
care. — Der. appliczhle, applicztxon.
APPOINT, sm. odd money, balance due on
account. See point.
APPOINTER, va. to refer a cause ; -MENT,
sm. a salary. See point.
30
APPORTER — A QUILIN.
APPORTER, va. to bring ; from L. appor-
, tare. — Der. apport (verbal subst., § 184),
rapport, rapporter, rapporteur.
APPOSER, va. to set, affix ; from L. appau-
sare, compd. of pausare, whence poser.
For au = o see § 107.
Appr6cier, va. to appreciate, ascertain
(weight) ; from L. appretiare (to estimate
worth, in TertuUian). — Der. a/»/>re«ation,
apprecuh\e.
Appr6hender, va. to apprehend ; from L.
apprehendere. Apprehender is a doublet
of apprendre. — Der. apprehension, from L.
apprehensionem.
APPRENDRE, va. {i') to learn, (2) to teach;
from L. apprendSre, a form which co-
existed in Lat. with apprekendere. (Ap-
prendere is found in Silius Italicus.) For
the loss of the penult, e, see § 51. — Der.
dhapprendre, apprenti (which was in O. Fr.
apprentif, from low L. apprendivus, a
medieval deriv. of apprendere. Apprendre
is a doublet of apprehender, q. v.
APPRENTI, sm. an apprentice. See appren-
dre. — Der. apprentisszge.
APPRETER, va. to make ready. See pret.
— Der. appret (verbal subst.).
APPRIVOISER, va. to tame; from L. ap-
privitiaie *. Apprivitiare is from
privus. For -tiaxe = -ser see agencer;
for i = oi see § 68.
Approbation, sf. approbation ; from L.
approbationem.
APPROCHER, va. to approach; from L.
appropiare (in Sulpicius Severus and St.
Jerome). For •pi = ch by consonification
of the i into 7, and consequent disappearance
of the first consonant p, see Hist. Gram,
p. 65. — Der. approche (verbal subst.), rap-
procher, rapprochement.
APPROFONDIR, va. to deepen, to fathom.
See profond.
Approprier, va. to appropriate ; from L.
appropriare. — Der. appropriztion.
APPROUVER, va. to approve ; from L. ap-
probare. For o = ow see § 81 ; for b = i/
see § 113. — Der, desapprouver.
APPROVISIONNER, va. to provision ;
-EMENT, sm. storing, stock, supply. See
provision,
Approximatif, adj. approximate; from
schol. L. approximativus.
Approximation, sf, an approximation;
from schol. L. approximationem.
APPUI, sm. a support, stay; verbal subst. of
appuyer (§ 184).
APPUYER, va. to support, prop up; from
late Lat. appodiare*, found in William
of Nangis, 'Appodiantes gladios lateri
eius': and in the Philipp. of William the
Breton, we have, ' Fossis iam plenis parmas
ad moenia miles appodiat.' Pui is from
podium (a balcony, in Pliny ; a base,
pedestal, in other writers). S'appuyer is,
therefore, to support oneself by the help
of something, of a pui, a prop. That
podium produced pui, as hodie has
hui (in aujourd'hui), as m odium, itiuid, as
in odio, ennui, is perfectly certain. For the
attraction of the Lat. i see Hist. Gram.
PP' 53» 77 ; for the loss of the d see Hist.
Gram. p. 81.
Lastly, low Lat. appodiare, from po-
divma, and It. appogiare from poggio,
both in the sense of appuyer, confirm this
^ etymology.
APRE, adj. rough, harsh ; formerly aspre,
from L. asper. — Der. apremenl.
APRES,^re/). after. See /res.
APRETE, sf. roughness, harshness. O. Fr.
asprete, from L. asperitatem. Asper(i)-
tatem, contracted into asper'tatem. (§52),
at first produced asperte (for atem = e,
see § 230), and asperte became asprete, by
the displacement and transposition of the
r, with a view to an easier pronunciation.
This metathesis (discussed in Hist. Gram,
p. 77), frequent in Fr., also takes place in
Gr., as in KapSia and Kpabia ; and in Lat., as
in crevi,pret. of cerno, sprevi of sperno,
etc. In Fr. this metathesis of the r is seen
in vervecem, brebis; it has also taken
place within the Fr. language in com-
paratively modern days : in the 1 7th cent,
the word brelan was proncd. either berlan
or brelan ; peasants say berbis, bertaudre,
berteche, for brebis, bretauder, breteche, etc.
Aprete is a doublet of asperite, q. v.
A-PROPOS, adv. apropos. See propos.
Apte, adj. apt ; from L. aptus. — Der. apt-
itude, which is a doublet of attitude, q. v.
APURER, va. to audit (accounts) ; -MENT,
sm. an audit. See pur.
t Aquarelle, sf. water-colour; from It.
acquarella (§ 25).
+ Aquarium, an aquarium; from. L.
aquarium. Aquarium is a doublet of
evier, q. v.
Aquatique, adj. aquatic; from L. aqua-
ticus.
Aqueduc, sm. an aqueduct ; from L. aquae-
ductus.
Aquilin, adj, aquiline; from L. aquili-
nus.
A QUILON — ARCHITECTONIQUE.
31
Aquilon, sm. the north wind ; from L.
aquilonem. Aquilon is a doublet of
aiglon.
t Arabesque, sm. ac?/. arabesque ; from
arabe, through the It. arahesco (§ 25).
Arable, adj. arable; from L. arabilis.
ARAGNE, sf. a spider ; O. Fr. araigne, from
L. aranea. For the change of the suffix
-anea into -agne, -aigne, cp. castanea*,
chataigne ; montanea*, montague ; Cam-
pania*, campagne. -aneus usually be-
came -ain, as subitaneus, soudain. In
O. Fr. aranea was called araigne, and
its web araignee, from araneata (the
work of the aranea). For the loss of
Lat. t see § 201. In the 16th cent, the
etymol. meaning was lost, and the insect
was called either araigne or araignee. In
the 1 7th cent, araignee drove out the other
form, and we find araigne no later than
La Fontaine. The word is now banished to
patois. The loss of it is certainly to be
regretted. It survives only in the compd.
tnusaraigne.
ARAIGNEE, s/. a spider. See aragne.
Aratoire, adj. belonging to tillage ; from L.
aratorius.
ARBALETE, sf. an arbalet, cross-bow. O. Fr.
arhaleste, from L, arcubalista (in Ve-
getius). Arcubalista, contracted into
arc'balista in low Lat., became arbalete,
(1) by reduction of re into r, as in quadri-
furcum*, carrefour ; (2) by the loss of
the s of O. Fr. arhaleste ; see Hist. Gram,
p. 81. — Der. arbaletritr.
1. ARBITRE, sm. an umpire, arbiter; from
L. arbiter. — Der. arbiirage, arbitniie,
arbitrA.
2. Arbitre, sm. arbitrement, free-will ; from
L. arbitrium. — Der. arbitrniie.
Arborer, va. to set up (a standard), lit. to
raise upright like a tree (arbre) ; from low
L. arborare, from arbor. The It. word
alberare is similarly formed from albero (a
tree). See § 15.
ARBOUSE, sf. the arbutus berry ; from L. ar-
buteus, deriv. of arbutus. Arbuteus,
regularly changed into arbutius (see § 58),
gives arbouse, by u = om (see § 90), and
ti^s (sfee agencer, and § 264). — Der. ar-
bousier.
ARBRE, sf a tree ; from L. arborem. For
the loss of the o, see § 51.
ARBRISSEAU, sm. a shrub, small tree ; from
L. arborieeUus, dim. of arbor. For
the loss of o see § 52; for c = ss see
amide; for -ellus = -eaM see § 282.
Arbuste, sm. a bush; from L. arbus-
tum.
ARC, sm. a bow, arc, arch ; from L. arcus.
Arc n z doublet of arche. — Der. archer.
t Arcade, sf an arcade; from the It.
(§ 25).
Arc-boutant, sm. (Archit.) an arched but-
tress, flying buttress. See bouter.
ARCEAU, sm. a vault, arch; O. Fr. arcel (lit.
a little arc). See arc.
ARC-EN-CIEL, sm. a rainbow ; from arc, en,
and del. See Hist. Gram. p. 176.
Archaisme, sm. an archaism ; from Gr.
apx°'^^i^^^- — D^r- archdi(\we.
ARCHAL, sm. brass wire; from L. orichal-
cum. For o = a see aout; for loss of i
see § 52.
ARCHANGE, sm. an archangel; from L.
archangelus (St. Jerome). Arcbangelus
is Gr. apxayye^os, from dpx^i- and dy-
yfXos.
ARCHE, (i) sf. an ark; from L. area. (2)
sf. an arch ; from L. archia *, deriv. of
arcus, a bow. — Der. archev, which is a
doublet of arquer.
Arch^ologie, sf. archaeology ; from Gr.
apxaiokoyia, from dpxaios and \6yos. —
Der. arc/te'o/ogue.
ARCHET, sm. a bow, fiddlestick; dim. of arc,
cp. cochet from coq, § 281. Arche t was ori-
ginally a wand bent in form of a bow.
ARCHEVEQUE, sm. an archbishop ; from
eccles. Lat. archiepiseopus, from Gr.
dpxi- and kmaKoitos. Episc(6)pus, fol-
lowing the law of Lat. accent (see § 51),
dropped the short vowel 6, then, for
euphony, not being able to bear the three
consonants scp together, it dropped the p ;
the word, then reduced to episc, became
evesque, (i) by p = i', see § iii; (2) by
i = e, see § 72 ; (3) hy c^q, see § 124, and
Hist. Gram. p. 63 : then evesque became
eveque, by the suppression of the s; see
Hist. Gram. p. 81. — Der. archeveche.
ARCHIDIACRE, sm. an archdeacon; from
Gr. dpxi- and diacre.
Archiduc, sm. an archduke ; from Gr. dpx*-
and due.
t Archipel, sm. an archipelago; from It.
arcipelago. In the 1 7th cent, the It. form
was still retained by some, who wrote archi-
pelague (§25).
ARCHITECTE, sm. an architect; from L.
architectus. — Der. architectare, -ural.
Architectonique, adj. related to archi-
tecture, architectonic; from Gr. apxircK-
TOVlKOS. ■
32
ARCHITRA VE — ARRIRA GES.
Architrave, sf. (Archlt.) an architrave;
from Gr. <Jpx*~ *"^ L. trabem.
Archives, sf.pl. archives; from L. archi-
vum (Tenullian). — Der. arc/»"t/iste.
tArchivolte, sf. (Archit.) archivault,
introd. in 1 6th cent, from It. arcivoUo
(§ 25).
AR(^ON, sm. saddlebow (like It. arcione) ;
from Low Lat. axcionem, dim. of arcus.
The saddlebow is a piece of arched
wood. — Der. ddsarponner (Hist. Gram.
p. 178).
Arctique, adj. arctic; from Gr. &pktik6s,
which from apKTos, the Bear, the constella-
tion near the North Pole.
Ardent, adj. burning, ardent ; from L.
ardentem. — Der. ardemment.
Ardeur, sf. heat, ardour ; from L. ar-
dorem.
ARDILLON, sm. the tongue of a buckle.
Origin unknown (§ 35).
ARDOISE, sf. slate. Origin unknown (§ 35).
Ardu, adj. steep ; from L, arduus.
Are, sw. an are (in Mensuration) = 1,196,049
sq. yards ; from L. area. Are is a doublet
of aire, q. v.
Ar^ne, sf. sand ; from L. arena.
ARETE, sf. fish-bone ; from L. arista (used
for a fish-bone in Ausonius). For i = e
see § 72 ; for the loss of s see Hist. Gram.
p. 81.
ARGENT, sm. silver; from L. argentum. —
Der. argenttx (formed from argent, after the
pattern of are = cr, § 263), -erie (§§ 208,
244), -ure (§ 236), -ier (§ i98),-in(§ 220),
A^inrgent&x (Hist. Gram. p. 178).
Argile, «/. clay; from L. argilla. — Der.
argilleux.
Argot, sm. slang. Origin unknown (§ 35).
i" Argousin, sm. a convict-warder ; in the
1 6th cent, algosans, corrupted from Sp.
alguazil (§ 26).
Arguer, va. to accuse, reprove; from L.
arguere.
Argument, sm. an argument ; from L.
argumentum. — Der. argumentei, -ation.
Argutie, sf. a quibble; from L. argutia.
Aride, adj. arid, dry; from L. aridus. —
Der. aridite.
+ Ariette, s/a little air, tune; dim. of It.
aria, introd. by LuUi (§ 25).
Aristocratie, sf. an aristocracy ; ftom Gr.
dpiaTOKparda. ^ f
Arithm6tique, sf. arithmetic f" from L.
arithmetica.
+ Arlequin, sm. a harlequin; introduced
in i6th cent, from Jt. arlechino (§ 25).
Armateur, sm. a shipowner, privateer cap-
tain, privateer ; from L. armator.
ARME, sf arm, weapon ; from L. arma. —
Der. armtx (§ 263), -^e (§ 201) (part,
subst., § 184), -enient (§ 225), -ure (§ 236)
(of which the doublet is armature), -orier
(§ 198), -orial (§ 191).
Armet, sm. a helmet, headpiece. Origin
unknown (§ 35).
Armistice, sm. an armistice; from L. ar-
mistitium *.
ARMOIRE, sf. clothes-press, chest of drawers.
O. Fr. armaire, from L. ariuariuxa. For
oi and ai see § 63 ; in this case the process
is reversed.
ARMOIRIES, sf. pi. a coat of arms, arms ;
O. Fr. armoyeries, der. from the old verb
armoyer, to emblazon, which from arme,
like larmoyer from larme.
ARMOISE, sf (Bot.) mugwort ; from L.
artemisia. For the loss of the atonic e
see § 52 ; for the accented i = oi see § 68.
ARMORIAL, adj. armorial. See arme.
Arm.ure, sf. armour. See arme. — Der. ar-
mtir'xtx.
Arome, sm. aroma ; from L. aroma. — Der.
aromatique, aromatiser.
ARONDE, sf. a swallow; from L. hirundo.
This word is used in the 1 7th cent, by La
Fontaine ; in the iSth by Voltaire. For
loss of the Lat. initial h see §134; for
atonic i = a see Hist. Gram. p. 48; for u = o
see § 97.
+ Arp§ge, sm. (Mus.) an arpeggio; from
It. arpeggio, derived from arpa, a harp
(§ 25)-
ARPENT, sm. an acre. Prov. arpen, from
L. arepennis. For the loss of the atonic
e see § 52. (In class. Lat, we find
arpennis as well as arepennis.) — Der.
arpentex, -age, -eur.
t Arquebuse, sf. an arquebuse; introd.
in 16th cent, from It. archibuso (§ 25).
— Der. arquebuslex.
Arquer, va. to bend, curve. See arc. Ar-
guer is a doublet of archer.
ARRACHER, va. to pluck out, eradicate;
from L. eradicare, which is first contr.
into erad'care (§52); it next became
era'care (Hist. Gram. p. 81), then arra-
cher, (l) byo = ch (§ 126), (2) by er = arr,
the passage of which seems to be er = o/r =
air = arr, formed as if from adr (§ 168). —
Der. arrachement, -pied.
ARRANGER, va. to arrange. See rang. —
Der. arrangement.
ARRERAGES, sm. pi. arrears. See arriere.
ARREST A TION— ARTIFICE.
Z3
Arrestation, sf. arrest. See arreter.
ARRET, sm. a judgment, decree, sentence;
verbal subst. oi arreter (§ 184).
ARRfiTER, va. to stop, arrest ; from L. ad-
restare, arrestare. Arrestare first
became, in O. Fr., arrester, then arreter, by
loss of the s (see Hist. Gram. p. 8l); but
the prim, form survives in arrestation, which
properly ought to have been arretation.
Arrh.es, sf. pi. earnest-money ; from L,
arrha.
ARRIERE, adv. behind ; from L. ad-retro*,
like derriere from de retro, The L. retro
became in O. Fr. riere (as 'petra pro-
duced pierre) : —
1. By e = ie, whether it be (l) accented,
as bSne, bien ; i^\, fiel (§ 56); or (2)
atonic, as brgvitatem, brievete (§ 56 and
Hist. Gram. p. 68).
2. By tr = r, as in retro, riere. Lat. tr
first became dr (see aider and § 117); dr
became rr by assimilation (§ 168), as in
latronem, larron. The rr is softened
into r in such words as fratrem, frere;
deretranus*, derrain, whence O. Fr. der-
rainier, now dernier (§ 168).
We thus see how retro became riere :
next, the Merov. Lat. having produced the
compds. ad-retro, de-retro, these became
respectively arriere, derriere, by dr being
assimilated into rr and thence to r (see
§ 168), as in quadratum, carre; quadra-
ginta, quarante, etc.
The O. Fr. had the form arrere, which
comes from arriere ; cp. acerer, from acier.
— Der. arrerage, arriertx.
ARRIVER, vn. to arrive ; from L. adri-
pare*, which is arripare in a Qth-cent.
text, and arribare in a iith-cent. chartu-
lary.
Arriver was first a sea-term ; and,
like its primitive adripare, it meant to
come to shore. In a 1 2th-cent. poem, the
Life of Gregory the Great, a fisherman
pilots travellers to an island in the high sea:
after many efforts, says the old poet, au
rocher il les arriva, i. e. he made them
touch, or reach, the shore. This original
meaning is still visible in a collection of ad-
ministrative rulings of the 13th cent, in the
Livre de Justice. Here we read that boat-
men may arriver their boats, and fasten
them to the trees ashore. From the 14th
cent, arriver loses its first meaning and
takes the more general sense of reaching
one's end, arriving.
We have seen under aller the passing from
the metaphor of seafaring to that of walk-
ing : a d n a r e , in Cicero, = to come by sea, in
Papias, to come by land (§ 13).
For dr = rr see § 168, for p = v see
§ III. We have seen that p first becomes
b before becoming v, and that between Lat.
arripare and Fr. arriver we have the inter-
mediate Low L. arribare. This softening
of p into V is found in Fr. in assopire*,
assouvir, etc., puree (O. Fr. pevree) from
pip'rata*. — Der. arrivage, -ee.
Arrogance, sf. arrogance; from L. arro-
gant i a. — Der. arrogant.
Arroger, va. to arrogate; from L. arro-
gare.
ARRONDIR, va. to make round, enlarge.
See rond. — Der. arrowcfissement (§ 225,
note 4).
ARROSER, va. to sprinkle, water ; from L.
adrorare (Marcellus Empiricus). For dr
= rr see § 168 ; as for r = s (adro-r-are,
arro-s-er), it is to be seen in plusieurs, beside
(O. Fr. bericle, beryllus); chaise {chair e,
cathedra). This phonetic change of r into
s or z is old: Theodore Beza, in the 1 6th
cent., tells us that the Parisians said peze,
tneze, chaize, Th4odoze, Mazie, for pere,
mere, chaire, Theodore, Marie. Pals-
grave (1530) remarks that at the court
people said not Paris, but Pazis. This
permutation is still to be found in some
patois, specially in that of Champagne,
which says ecuzie for ecurie, freze for frere,
etc. — Der. orrosage, arrosoir.
t Arsenal, sm. an arsenal; introd. in
16th cent, from It. arsenate (§ 25).
Arsenic, sm. arsenic; from L. arsenicum.
Arsenic is a doublet of O. Fr. arsoine.—
Der. arsenicsil. arsenieux.
Art, sm. art; from L. artem.
Art^re, s/. an artery ; from L. arteria. — •
Der, arteriel.
ARTESIEN, adj. artesian; a word of hist,
origin, these wells having been bored in
France for the first time in Artois (§ 33).
tArtichaut, sm. an artichoke; introd,
in 1 6th cent, from It. articiocco (§ 25).
Article, sm. (1) an articulation, knuckle, (2)
article ; from L. articulum. Article is a
doublet of orteil, q. v.
Articuler, va. to articulate; from L. arti-
culare/ Articuler is a doublet of ar tiller.
— Der. articulztion (§ 232, note 4), -aire
(§ 197, note i), d^sarticuler (Hist. Gram,
p. l'jS),marticule.
Artifice, sf. an artifice ; from L. artificium.
— Der. artificial.
D
34
A R TIFICIEL — A SSA SSIN.
Artiflciel, adj. artificial ; from L. art i fie i-
alis.
Artificieux, adj. artful, cunning ; from L.
artificiosus.
ARTILLERIE, sf. artillery; a word existing
in Fr. more than two hundred years before
I the invention of gunpowder. It then had
' a double sense, (i) arms or engines of war,
generally ; and specially such arms as the
bow, arbalest, etc., weapons of offence, to
shoot with : — Qtticonque doresenavanl vou-
dra etre artilleur et user du mestier rf'ar-
tillerie en la ville et banlieue de Paris,
c'est a savoir faiseur d'arcs, de flesches,
d'arbalestes (from a document of a. d.
'375)- (2) Also, as in Joinville, in the 1 3th
cent., the arsenal in which such arms were
deposited. The soldiers of the artillerie
were archers and crossbowmen ; then
gunpowder came in, and fire-arms sup-
planted the bow, etc., but the name for the
older weapons was retained for the new.
Joinville also calls the maitre des arbales-
triers the maistre de /'artillerie; and
again he has nul ne tiroit d'arc d'arbaleste,
ou d' autre artillerie. Artillerie is derived
from O. Fr. ar tiller, to arm. (This word
survived long in the navy: as late as the
1 6th cent, the phrase un vaisseau artille
was used for ' an armed ship.')
Artiller is in Low Lat. artillare, answer-
ing to L. axticulare, derived from artem
through articulus. That artem should
take in late Lat. the sense of the 'art of
war ' will be better understood when we
remember that the same metaphor has pro-
duced en^in.{({.y.) from ingenium (§ 13).
ARTILLEUR, sm. an artillery-man ; derived
from artiller. See artillerie.
ARTIMON, sm. the mizen-mast ; from L.
artemonem, used by Isidore of Seville in
the same sense. For e = t see § 60.
+ Artisan, sm. an artisan, mechanic; in-
trod. in 16th cent, from It. artigiano
(§ 25). Originally ar/isa« meant an artist:
Peintre poete ou aultre artisan, says
Montaigne.
+ Artiste, sm, an artist; introd. in l6th
cent, from It. artista (§ 25).
As, sm. an ' as ' (Roman coin) ; from L. as.
Ascendant, (i) adj. ascendant ; (2) sm.
ascendancy, influence ; from L. ascend-
ent em, ascendnnce.
Ascension, s/. ascension, ascent; from L.
ascensionem. — Der. ascensionnd.
Ascdte, smf. an ascetic ; from Gr. daKfjTr)s
(§ 21). — Der. asceVisme, -ique.
Asile, sm. an asylum; from L. asylum.
Aspect, sm. aspect, sight; from L. aspec-
tus, deriv. of aspicere.
ASPERGE, s/. asparagus; from L. aspara-
gus. Aspar(fi,)gus, contracted into as-
p^r'gus (§ 51), becomes asperge by a=c
(see § 54).
Asperger, va. to sprinkle ; from L. asper-
gere.
Asp6rit6, sf. asperity, roughness ; from L.
asperitatem. Asperitd is a doublet of
aprete, q. v.
Aspersion, sf. an aspersion, sprinkling ; from
L. aspersionem.
Aspersoir, sm. a sprinkling-brush ; from L.
aspersorium*.
Asphalte, sm. asphalte; from L. asphal-
tum.
Asphyxie, sf. (Med.) asphyxy, suffocation ;
from Gr, dacpv^ia.
ASPIC, sm. lavender-spike, corruption of
espic, from Lat. spicus (lavender). The
sweet and volatile oil from the large laven-
der, known commonly as huile d' aspic, is
called by Fr, chemists huile de.spic. For
sp = esp see Hist. Gram. p. 78.
+ Aspic, sm. an aspic, a kind of viper. The
word is not found in Fr. before the i6th
cent., and comes from Prov. aspic (§ 24),
from L. aspidem. In O. Fr. aspic existed
under the form of aspe, which is its doublet.
Aspirer, va. (i) to draw breath, (2) to
aspire (to); from L. aspirare. — Der.
as/>z>ation, -ateur.
ASSAILLIR, va. to assail, attack ; from L.
assSlire (used in this sense in the Salic
Law ; also in one of Charlemagne's Capitu-
laries, ' Qui peregrine nocuerit vel eum
adsalierit '). For the change of salire
into saillir see saillir. For assimilated ass
for ads see § 168.
ASSAINIR, va. to make wholesome. See sain.
— Der. assamissement (§ 225, note 4).
ASSAISONNER, va. to season, dress. See
saison. — Der. assaisonnement.
Assassin, sm. an assassin, a word of historic
origin (see § 33), Assassin, which is
assacis in Joinville. in the 13th cent., in
late Lat. hassessin, is the name of a well-
known sect in Palestine who flourished in
the 13th cent., the Haschischin (drinkers
of haschisch, an intoxicating drink, a decoc-
tion of hemp). The Scheik Haschischin,
known by the name of the Old Man
of the Mountain, roused his followers'
spirits by help of this drink, and sent them
to stab his enemies, especially the leading
A SSA UT — A SSONANT.
55
Crusaders. Joinville uses' the word assassin
in the sense of a member of this sect, but
from the 15th cent, the word becomes a
synonym for a murderer, and loses its original
and special signification. We have at this
day quite forgotten the origin of the word,
an(t*the fact which introduced it to Europe.
The same is true of several other words of
the same kind, like the berline, which
originally meant a Berlin carriage, or seide,
which is the name for a fanatic blindly de-
voted to the Prophet in Voltaire's ' Ma-
homet.'
ASSAUT, sm. an assault. O. Fr. assalt, from
L. assaltus, compd. of saltus. For al =
au see § 157.
ASSEMBLER, va. to assemble, collect, gather;
from L. adsxmiilare, assimulare. A.s-
sirauldre becomes assim'lare (see § 52),
and thence assembler, by (l) val^mbl
(see Hist. Gram. p. 73); (2) i = e (§ 72).
— Der. assemblee (partic. subst., § 201),
-age, rassembler, rassemblement.
ASSENER, va. to strike hard, to deal a blow ;
from L. assignare. Assener at first meant
to direct a blow, to hit the mark : Froissart
speaks of an archer who drew un carreau,
et assena un chevalier en la teste, i. e. hit
him on the head. Little by little assener
lost its etymol. meaning, and came to
signify, as it does now, 'to hit hard' (§ 13).
The forms assinare, assenare are to be
found in chartularies of the llth cent. The
Romans similarly used either aprugna or
apruna. This gn = « is to be met with
in benignus, benin, etc. (§ 131). It is
also found, orally, in the word signet,
proncd. sinet. For i = e see § 72. Assener
is a doublet of assigner, q. v.
Assentiment, sm. assent, approval ; from
O. Fr. assentir, from L. assentire.
ASSEOIR, va. to seat ; from L. assidere.
For the loss of the d see § 117; for
i = e see § 72; for e — oi see § 62. — Der.
rasseoir, rassis. The fem. part, assise has
become a subst. (§ 187).
ASSERMENTER, va. to swear (a witness, etc.).
See serment.
Assertion, s/. an assertion; from L. asser-
tionem,
ASSERVIR, va. to reduce to servitude ; from
L. asservire. — Der. asseri/issement.
ASSESSEUR, sm. an assessor ; from L. as-
sessorem. For 6 = eu see § 79.
ASSEZ, adv. enough ; from L. adsatis* (the
t may be traced in Prov. assatz). Assez
at first meant ' much,' and was placed after
the subst. It may be found on every page
of the Chanson de Roland : ' I will give
you or et argent assez ' (i. e. plenty of gold
and silver), trop assez (i. e. far too much),
plus assez, etc. Similarly with It. assai:
presto assai (prestus adsatis) = very quick,
tresvite, not assez vite. For change and
comparison of meanings see §§ 13, 15.
In this word ds is assimilated to ss,
as in aliud-sic, aussi (§ 168). For
a = e see § 54. Adsatis becomes assez,
just as amatis, portatis become aimez,
portez.
Assidu, adj. assiduous, punctual; from L.
assiduus. — Der. assiduxXe, assiduvntxiX..
ASSIEGER, va. to besiege ; from L. assedi-
are*, used in sense of laying siege in 8th-
cent. texts. For diare=^er see Hist.
Gram. p. 65 and §§ 137, 263; for e = /c
see § 56.
ASSIETI'E, (i) s/. a position, site, equilibrium,
incidence (of taxation). This word is simply
the strong part, of asseoir (§§ 187, 188;
see also aftsow/^). (2) s/. a plate. The Lat.
assecare (compd. of ad and secare. Hist.
Gram. p. 177 and § 1 68) gave birth, through
the supine assectum, to the fictitious verb
assectare, whence It. assettare.
The Fr. assiette, also spelt assiecte, answers
to assecta*, and means properly ' the
platter on which meat is cut up.' For § =
ie see §§ 56, 66; as to ct = « (a change
which maybe seen in dact'lum, datte, etc.,
§ 18), this assimilation had already taken
place in Lat. ; thus we find mattea for
mactea, natta for nacta, gluttio for
gluctio. — Der. assiettee.
Assigner, va. to assign; from L. assignare.
— Der. assigna.tion, -at.
Assimiler, va. to assimilate; from L. as-
similar e. — Der. assimihtion.
ASSISE, sf. a course (of stones). See as-
seoir.
Assister, (i) va. to assist, help, (2) va. to
be present, attend; from L. assistere. —
Der. assistance.
Associer, va. to associate ; from L. asso-
ciare. — Der. assoc/ation.
Assolement, sm. a distribution of crops. See
sole.
ASSOMBRIR, va. to darken. See sombre.
ASSOMMER, va. to fell, knock down. See
somme. — Der. assommoir.
Assomption, sf. an assumption ; from L.
assumptionem.
ASSONANT, adj. (Rhet.) assonant ; from L.
assouautem. — Der. assowance.
D 2
3«
ASSORTIR—ATRE.
ASSORTIR, va. and «. to match, sort. See
sorte. — Der. assortiment, d^sassortir.
Assoupir, va. to make drowsy, lull to
sleep; from L. assopire. Assoupir is a
. doublet of assouvir, q. v. — Der. assoupisse-
ment.
ASSOUPLIR, va. to make supple. See
souple.
ASSOURDIR, va. to deafen. See sourd.—
Der. asso«rrfi ssement.
ASSOUVIR, va. to satiate, glut; from L.
assopire. For 6 = om see § 8i ; for p = t/
see § 1 1 1 . Assouvir is a doublet of assoupir,
q. V. — Der. assoj/vissement.
ASSUJETTIR, va. to subject. See sujet
Der. assujettissement.
Assumer, va. to assume ; from L. assu-
, mere.
ASSURER, va. to secure, prop up; in the
1 6th cent, asseurer, from L. assecu-
, rare (found in a 12th -cent, document,
* Adsec\iravit in manu domini regis
patris sui'). For the loss of the c
see Hist. Gram. p. 81. — Der. assurance,
lassurer.
Ast6risque, sm. an asterisk; from Gr.
daTfpiaKos.
Asthme, sm. the asthma ; from Gr. aaOpa.
— Der. asthmat\(\ne.
ASTICOTER, va. to plague, tease. See
astiquer.
ASTIQUER, va. to polish leather with a
glazing-stick, called an astic. Origin un-
known (§ 35). Asticoter is derived from
astiquer in the metaph. sense of ' to plague,
• tease.' Frequentative verbs of this kind
are not rare in Fr. as picoter for piquer,
tremhloter for trembler, etc.
Astragale, sm. the ankle-bone ; from L.
astragalus.
Astre, sm. a star; from L. astrum.
ASTREINDRE, va. to oblige, compel, bind ;
from L. astringere. Astringere, regu-
larly contr. to astrin*re (see § 51), pro-
duced astreindre by wc — ndr (see Hist.
Gram. p. 73).
Astringent, adj. astringent; from L. as-
tringentem.
Astrolabe, sm. an astrolabe ; from Gr.
d(TTp6\a^ov, lit. an instrument for taking
the position of stars.
Astrologie, .«/. astrology ; from Gr. aarpo-
\oyia. — Der. astrologae. 'AarpoKoyia had
. "no bad sense in Gr., and answered exactly to
our Astronomy, not to Astrology.
Astronoinie, .</". astronomy ; from L. as-
tronomic. — Der. astronome, as/rowowique.
Astuce, sf. cunning, astuteness ; from L.
astucia. — Der. asft/cieux (§ 229).
ATELIER, sm. a workshop. O. Fr. astelier
(Bernard Palissy has bastelier), from L. has-
tellarius*, a place at which are made the
hastellae (for hastulae, i. e. little planks,
splints, in Isidore of S<5ville). Hastella*
becomes in O. Fr. astelle, a splint, now
attelle. The astelier (place for making these
astelles) was at first simply a carpenter's
workshop, whence it came to mean a work-
shop generally, (For such enlargements of
meaning see § 13). As to the philological
changes, the chief is the loss of the h, which
may also be seen in habere, avoir, etc.
(§ 134). This is to be noted even in
Class. Lat. ; er, olus, era (Old Lat. her,
holus, hera), are very common in inscrip-
tions, in which we also find ujus, ic, oc,
eredes, onestus, omo, for hujus, hie,
hoc, heredes, honestus, homo ; and this
though the Romans aspirated the initial
h strongly, just as is done in England or
Germany. For the loss of the s see Hist.
Gram. p. 81 ; for arius = «Vr see § 198.
ATERMOYER, va. to delay payment of, put
off the terme (q. v.) Atermoyer is derived
from terme, Hke riidoyer from rude, nettoyer
from net, etc. — Der. atermoiement.
Ath6e, sm. an atheist; from Gr. d9€os. —
Der. atheisme.
Athlete, sm. an athlete ; from Gr. dOXtjr-qs.
— Der. athletique.
Atlas, sm. (i) Atlas, (2) an atlas, map-book ;
a word of historic origin. Mercator first
gave this name to a volume of geographical
maps, because Atlas was thought in classical
mythology to bear the world on his shoul-
ders (§ 33).
Atmosphere, sf. the atmosphere ; a word
constructed by the learned (§22) from Gr.
drfids and acpaipa. — Der. atmospherique.
A.tome, sm. an atom ; from Gr. dro-
fiOS.
Atonie, sf. (Med.) atony ; from Gr. drovia.
— Der. alone.
Atour, sm. attire, ornament ; derived from
O. Fr. verb atourner. Atour comes from
atourner, like tour from tourner, contour
from contourner. For the etymology of
atourner see tourner.
ATRE, sm. a hearthstone, fireplace. O. Fr.
in 8th cent, astre (in the Glosses of Reiche-
nau, meaning 'tile-flooring'). For as = a
see Hist. Gram. p. 81. The atre was
rightly the tiled floor of a corner, nook, or
fire-hearth, and the word comes, through
A TROCE—A TTOUCHEMENT.
11
astre, astrum, from O. H. G. astrih, flag-
ging, paved flooring (§ 20). The Glosses of
Reichenau confirm this, translating astrum.
by pavimentum.
Atroce, adj. atrocious; from L. atrocem.
— Der. atroc'ii^. ik
Atrophie, &f. atrophy; fiom Gr. dTpo(pia.
— Der. s'atrophiev.
ATTABLER, va. to place at table. See table.
ATTACHER, va. to attach, fasten, tie;
DETACHER, to detach, unfasten ; from a
common radical lacher, as attendre and de-
tendre are from tendre, and attirer and de-
tirer from tirer. This radical verb has dis-
appeared, leaving no traces in O.Fr., and its
origin is unknown (§ 35). Attacker is a
doublet of attaquer, q. v. — Der. attachemtnt,
rattacher, soustacher, detachement.
ATTAQUER. va. to attack, assail. We have
explained (Hist. Gram. pp. 21, 22) how the
He de France dialect grew in the middle ages
at the expense of the Norman, Picard, and
other dialects, and ended by supplanting
them ; how, nevertheless, it accepted certain
words from these dialects, words which al-
ready existed in the He de Fr. dialect under
^ a different form, and how thenceforth the
I two forms were used indiff'erently, either
with the same meaning, or with two mean-
ings. Attaquer, really the same word as
attacker, as may be seen by the phrase
s'attaquer a = s' attacker a, was one of the
latter. The history of the language also
proves it, the two words being formerly used
indiff'erently, attaquer being sometimes used
in the sense of attacker, as in the following
passage (14th cent.): Elle attaque au mantel
line ricke escarboucle (Baudoin de Sebourc).
Sometimes, on the other hand, attacker
means attaquer, livrer un combat, as in the
following extract from a letter of Calvin to
the Regent of England : A ce que j'entends,
Monseigneur, vous avez deux especes de mu-
tins qui se sont eslevez centre le roy et I'estat
du royaume : les uns sont gens fantastiques
qui soubs couleur de VSvangile vouldroient
mettre tout en confusion; les autres sont
gens obstines aux superstitions de VAntechrist
de Rome. Tous ensemble meritent bien d'es-
tre reprimes parle glayve qui vous est commis,
veu quails s'attaschent nonseulement au
roy, mais a, Dieu qui Va assis au siege royal,
et vous a commis la protection tant de sa
per Sonne que de sa majeste. (Lettres de
Calvin recueillies par M. Bonnet, ii. 201).
Attaquer, then, being simply a doublet of
attacker, I refer the student to attacker
for its etymology. — Der. attaque, mattU'
qu2.h\t.
ATTARDER, va. to retard, delay. See
tard.
ATTEINDRE, va. to touch, strike, reach,
attain ; from L. attingire. For i = ei
see § 73 ; for loss of atonic e (ng're) see
§ 51 ; for iig'r = nr see § 131 ; for nv^ndr
see Hist. Gram. p. 73. — Der. atteinte (partic.
subst., § 188), see absoute.
ATTELER, va. to yoke, put to ; DETELER,
to unyoke. Both these words come from
a common radical teler, whose origin is
unknown (§ 35). — Der. atteUge.
ATTENANT, adj. adjoining, contiguous ;
from L. attinentem. See tenir.
ATTENDRE, va. to await, wait for, expect ;
from L. attendere. For the loss of the
penult e see § 51. — Der. attente (participial
subst., § 188), see absoute.
ATTENDRIR, va. to soften, affect. See
tendre. — Der. a/^ewcfrissement.
ATTENTE, sf. expectation, hope. See at-
tendre.
Attenter, va. to attempt; from L. atten-
tare. — Der. attentat, attenta-toire.
Attentif, adj. attentive; from L. atten-
tivus.
Attention, sf. attention ; from L. atten-
tionem.
Att6nuer, va. to weaken, waste ; from L.
attenuare Der. attenuation.
ATTERRER, va. to throw down; lit. to
throw down to the ground. The etymol.
meaning is still to be traced in Bossuet :
Se ralentir apres V avoir atterr^, c'est
luifaire reprendre ses forces.
ATTERRIR, vn. to land. See terre.—'Dtr.
atterrissa.ge (§ 248), -issement (§ 225).
Attester, va. to attest; from L. attestari.
— Der. attestsition,
Attieisme, sm. an atticism ; from Gr. oltti-
Kiafius.
ATTIEDIR, va. to cool. See tiede — Der.
attiedisstmtnt.
ATTIFER, va. to dress one's head. Origin
unknown (§ 35).
ATTIRER, va. to attract. See tirer. — Der.
attirail.
ATTISER, va. to stir (the fire); from L.
attitiare * (deriv. from titio). For tiare
= ser see agencer.
+ Attitude, s/. an attitude ; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. attitudine (§ 25). Attitude
is a doublet of aptitude.
ATTOUCHEMENT, sm. a touch, contact ;
from attoucker. See toucher.
38
A TTRA CTION—A UGURE.
Attraction, s/. attraction ; fromL. attrac-
tionem.
ATTRAIT, 5m. attraction, allurement, pi.
charms ; from L. attractus, found in sense
of allurement in Dictys of Crete, ct be-
comes it by an incomplete assimilation
(§ 168) : ot first became jt, which passed
into it, wherein the French i represents the
Lat. o. This change is not rare in Fr. ;
thus after a, as in factus, fait', after e, as
in confectus, con/it; after i, as strictus,
etroit; after o, as coctus, cuit; after u,
as fructus, /rwt'/. See Hist. Gram. p. 50.
The spelling, faict, traict, etc., is the
grotesque and barbarous work of I5th-cent.
pedants. The medieval Fr. wrote it, as
now, fait, trait, etc. Wishing to bring
these words nearer to their Latin original
the pedantic Latinists intercalated a c, and
wrote faict, traict, not knowing that the it
already represented the Lat. ct.
ATTRAPER, va. to catch; from trappe.
For the etymology see trappe. — Der. attrape
(verbal subst.), rattraper.
Attribuer, va. to attribute ; from L. at-
tribuere. — Der. attribution, attributif.
Attribut, S7W. an attribute; fromL. attri-
butum.
ATTRISTER, va. to sadden. See triste.
ATTROUPER, va. to gather, assemble. See
troupe. — Der. attroupement.
AU, art. to the. O. Fr. al, contr. from a le
(see le). AUX, O. Fr. aus, earlier als, for
d les (see les). For Z = «, in these words, see
§157.
AUBAINE, sf. escheat, right of succession to
the goods of an alien at his death. An
aubain was a foreigner who had not been
naturalised. Origin unknown (§ 35).
AUBE, sf. the dawn of day, daybreak, formerly
albe, from L. alba. For l = w see § 157.
— Der. auba.de, introd. in 15th cent, from
Sp. albada (§ 26).
AUBE, sf. an alb, vestment of white linen ;
from L. alba.
AUBE, sf. a paddle (of a wheel). Origin un-
known (§ 35).
AUBEPINE, sf. the hawthorn. O. Fr.
albespine, from L. albaspina. For l = u
see § 157; for Bp = ep see Hist. Gram,
p. 74.
AUBERGE, sf. an inn, public house. O. Fr.
alberge, earlier still helberge; in the nth
cent, herberge in the Chanson de Roland,
meaning a military station — a word of
Germanic origin, like most war-terms, and
from O. H.G. her'berga, heriberga (§ 21).
It is curious that the mod. Germ, deriv.
herberg also signifies * an inn,' by the same
extension of meaning as has modified the
sense of the Fr. word (§ 15).
AUBIER, sm. (Bot.) the blea ; from L. alba-
rius% from albuB (by reason of the white-
ness of the inner bark of the plant). For
al = AM see § 157 ; for -arius = -/er see
§ 198.
AUBOUR, sm. (Bot.) the cytisus, laburnum;
from L. albtumum. For al = ou see
§ 157 ; for u = OM see § 97 ; for m = r cp.
cornu, cor, § 163.
AUCUN, adj. any, any one, some one. This
word (in the 1 3th cent, alcun, in the 1 2th
alquti) is a compd. of alque, as chacun of
cheque, and quelqu'un of quelque. AUquis
produced O. Fr. alque'. aUqul venerunt,
in O. Fr. alque vinrent. Alque therefore
answers to quelque, and alqun to quelqu'un.
The history and etymology of aucun show
that the word is properly affirmative, not
negative : Avez-vousf entendu aucun dis-
cours qui vous fit croire? . . . Allez au
bord de la mer attendre les vaisseaux, et
si vous en voyez aucuns, revenez me le
dire. . . . Pbedre etait si succinct yw' aucuns
Cen ont bldme. La Fontaine, Fables, 6. i.
Aucun becomes negative when accompanied
by ne: J' en attendais trois, aucun ne vint;
but we must not forget that the word it-
self is positive, meaning quelqu'un, ' some
one.' For the change of aliqiiis into
alque, by the fall of the Lat. i, see § 51 ;
for al = aw see § 157.
Audace, sf boldness; from L. audacia. —
Der. audacieux.
Audience, sf. an audience, hearing; from
L. audientia. — Der. audiencitx.
Auditeur, sm. an auditor; from L. audi-
torem.
Auditif, adj. auditory; from L. audi Vi-
tus.
Audition, sf. a hearing; from L. auditio-
nem.
Auditoire, sm. (l) a court, hall, (2) audi-
ence; from L. auditorium.
AUGE, sf. a trough ; from L, alvSus. For
al = QM see § 157 ; for -veus = -ge,
through yjus, 'jus, ge, see Hist. Gram,
p. 66 ; for the loss of v see Hist. Gram,
p. 81.
Augment, sm. an augment, increase ; from
L. augmentum.
Augmenter, va. to augment; from L.
augmentare, — Der. augmentation.
Augure, sm. an augury; from L. augurium.
A UGVSTE — A VTO-BA-Tt,
39
Atigure is a doublet of O. Fr. heur Der.
augiirer.
AugUSte, adj. august, noble ; from L. au-
gustus. Auguste is a doublet of aout, q. v.
AUJOURD'HUI, adv. to-day. Hni is L.
hodie. For hodie = odie see § 134; for
odie=w see § 120; for loss of d, and
for 6 = M, see § 77. The O. Fr. word re-
mains in the law term, d'hui en un an.
Aujoiird'hui, in O. Fr. written more cor-
rectly an jour d'hui, is a pleonasm, lit.
meaning ' on the day of to-day.'
AUMONE, sf. alms, charity. O. Fr. aumosne ;
in nth cent, almosne ; in 9th cent.
almosna, elmosna, from L. eleemosyna.
For the loss of the Lat. y, under the rule
of the Lat. accent, see § 51 ; for the loss
of the ee see § 52; for e\ = au see
§ 157; for the loss of s see Hist. Gram,
p. 8x. Der. aumomtx, -erie, -ifere.
AUMUSSE, sf. amess, a kind of fur worn on
Church vestments. Origin unknown (§ 35).
AUNE, sm. (Bot.) an alder-tree ; from L. al-
nus. For Ql = au see § 157.
AUNE, sf. an ell. O. Fr. alne, from Low L.
alena, which from Goth, aleina. For al =
au see § 157. — Der. auner, aunage.
AUPARAVANT, adv. before; from au and
paravant. The article au was not attached to
this word till towards the 15th cent.: O.Fr.
said par-avant. Je ne votdus point etre
ingrat, says Froissart, quand je consid6rai
la honte miil me montra par-avant.
AUPRfeS, adv. near. See pres.
Aur6ole, sf. an aureole, glory, halo ; from
L. aureola, sc. corona, a crown of gold.
Aureole is a doublet of loriot, q. v.
Auriculaire, adj. auricular; from L. aur-
icular is. Auriculaire is a doublet of
oreiller, q. v.
AURONE, sf. (Bot.) southernwood; from L.
abrotonum. Abrotonum, regularly
contrd. into abrot'num, according to the
law of the Lat. accent (see § 51), reduced
tn to n, as in plat'nus, plane; retna,
rene (Hist. Gram. p. 81). br becomes ur
as follows : b is softened first into v ; this is
next vocalised and becomes u, a transition
very common in Lat. as nauta for nav'ta ;
naufragium for nav'fragium ; aucellus
for av'cellus, etc. (§ 113). Even in Lat.
there are examples in which the u (as in
Fr.) comes from b through v; thus ab-
fero becomes aufero, by the way of
avfero ; abfugio, avfugio, aufugio.
Cp. also the common Lat. form gauta
for gab'ta (gabata). This change of b
into u is found in parol^ tole, forge, puree,
which words have lost their etymol. form
in mod. Fr., but in O. Fr. were paraide
(parab'la), taule (iAWXi), faurge, (fabr'-
cz), petiree (pevree, pip'rata). This soft-
ening also goes on within the Fr. language :
thus aurai, saurai, were in O. Fr. avrai,
for averai, from habere; savrai, saver ai
from sap ere, as has been shown in the
Hist. Gram. p. 128.
Aurore, sf. the dawn, break of day ; from
L. aurora.
Ausculter, va. (Med.) to auscultate, Hsten ;
from L. auscultare. Ausculter is a doublet
of ecouter, q. v. — Der. awscw/^ation.
Auspice, sm. an auspice; from L. auspi-
cium.
AUSSI, adv. also, likewise. O. Fr. alsi, from
L. aliud sic (Hist. Gram. p. 158), aliud
having regularly produced al in O. Fr. by
dropping the d of the medial consonants ds
(see Hist. Gram. p. 81), and then by drop-
ping the short atonic vowels iu (§ 51).
Then for sic = s/ see si; for al = au see
§ 157-^
AUSSITOT, adv. immediately. See aussi and
tot.
Austere, adj. austere; from L. austerus.
— Der. austerhe.
Austral, adj. austral, southern ; from L.
australis.
+ Autan, sm. the south wind ; from Prov.
autan (§ 24). This word, originally altan,
is from L. altanus (the south wind, in
Vitruvius).
AUTANT, adv. as much, as many ; so much,
so many. O. Fr. altant, from L. aliud
tantum (Hist. Gram. p. 159). For aliud
— al = au see aussi.
AUTEL, sm. an ahar. O. Fr. altel (in the
nth cent, alter, in the Chanson de Roland),
from L. altare. For al = aM see § 157;
for a, = e see § 54; for r = / cp. pere-
grin us, pelerin, § 154.
Auteur, sm. an author ; from L. autorem,
which is found as well as auctorem.
Authentique, adj. authentic ; from L.
authenticus. — Der. authenticite.
Autochthone, (l) adj. autochthonic, ab-
original, (2) sm. an aboriginal ; from Gr.
avToxOojv.
Autocrate, sm. an autocrat; from Gr.
avTOKp&T-qs.
+ Auto-da-f6, sm. an auto-da-fe, 'act of
faith '; a word introduced from Port., used of
the execution of the victims of the Inquisi-
tion (§ 26).
40
A UTOGRAPHE — A VEC.
Autographe, S1^. an autograph ; from Gr.
avT6ypa<po$,
Automate, sm. an automaton; from Gr.
avT6fMros. — Der. aw/owa/ique,
Automne, sm. the autumn; from L. au-
tumnus, a form of auctumnus.
Autonome, adj. autonomous, independent ;
from Gr. avT6voyiOS. — Der. autonomic.
Autopsie, sf. an autopsy, post-mortem ex-
amination ; from Gr. avTO\pia.
Autoriser, va. to authorise ; from Low L.
auctorisare*.
Autorit6, s/ authority; from L. auctori-
tatem.
AUTOUR, prep, round about. See tmr.
AUTOUR, sm. a goshawk. Pro v. austor.
It. astore ; Low L. ast6rius, from L. astu-
rius *, from astur, used in 4th cent,
by Firmicus Maternus. For ast = aust see
autruche ; for loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 81.
AUTRE, adj. other ; formerly altre, from L.
alter. Autrui answers to autre as cettui to
ctf/ (see Hist. Gram. p. 1 15); consequently
autrui had no article in O. Fr. : men said
V autrui cheval or le cheval autrui (al-
terius equus) for le cheval d'un autre.
AUTRUCHE, sf. an ostrich; O. Fr. autruce
and austruce from L. avistrutliio (strucio
for struthio is to be found in medieval
Lat.). Avis -struthio, avis-strucio, is
contr. into av'strucio; v then becomes
u, as in navifragium, nav'fragium,
naufragiuiu (§ 141). For the loss of the
s see Hist. Gram. p. 81. The Sp. avestruz,
an ostrich, confirms this derivation from avis
struthio (§ 15).
AUVENT, sm. a penthouse. Origin unknown
(§ 35).
Auxiliare, adj. auxiliary; from L. auxili-
aris.
AVAL, adv. down-stream ; from L. ad val-
lem, used of a river flowing vale-wards : its
opposite is amont (ad montem), which is
upwards, towards the hill. The verb avaler
(lit. to go aval) signified at first ' to descend,'
and was but gradually restricted to its
present sense of swallowing. (For such
restrictions, see § 13.) Some traces of
the original meaning remain in mod. Fr.,
such as the phrase les bateaux avalent le
fleuve, and in the word avalanche, which is
properly a mass of snow which slides to-
wards the vale. Lat. dv is here reduced to
V, as in advertere, avertir (§ 120).
"t Avalanche, sf. an avalanche; a word
introduced from Switzerland. For its ety-
mology see avcd.
AVALER, va. to swallow. See aval.
A V ANGER, {l)va. to advance, stretch forth;
(2) vn. to come forward. See avant. — Der.
avance, avancemtni.
\ Avanie, sf. molestation, annoyance. This
word is a curious instance of the vicissi-
tudes in meaning described in § 13. Avanie,
which is simply the common Gr. d^avla (an
affront), which again is from the Turkish
avan (a vexation, trouble), signified origin-
ally the exactions practised on Christian mer-
chants by the Turks. Brought by travellers
into Europe, the word soon passed out of
its special signification of annoyance to
Christians, to its present sense of annoyance
generally.
AVANT, (l) prep, before, (2) adv. far, for-
ward ; from L. abante, a form found in a
few inscriptions of the Empire, e. g, in the
epitaph, ' Fundi hujus dominus infans hie
jacet similis Deo; hunc abante oculis
parentis rapuerunt nymphaeo in gurgite.'
Abante was certainly a common Lat.
form, answering to ante, the Class, form.
There is preserved a curious testimony on
this point : the common folk said ab-ante
for ante, and an old Roman grammarian
finds great fault with the form, and bids his
readers avoid it: '"Ante me fugit"
dicimus non " ab-ante me fugit " ; nam
praepositio praepositioni adjungitur impru-
denter : quia ante et ab sunt duae praepo-
sitiones.' (From the Glosses of Placidus
in Mai, iii. 431.) The Lat. b becomes v :
this softening is found in Lat. ; in the oldest
monuments we see incomparavilis for
incomparabilis, acervus for acerbus,
devitum for debitum ; in 6th-cent.
documents deliverationem for deliber-
ationem. This softening also takes place
in Fr. in habere, avoir, etc. (§ 113). — Der.
avantage (that which advances, profits us,
sets us avant).
A VANTAGE, sm. an advantage. See avant. —
Der. avantager, desavantager, avantageux,
d^savantageux.
Avare, adj. avaricious, greedy ; from L.
a varus. Avare is a doublet of O. Fr. aver.
— Der. avarice.
AVARIE, sf. a damage, injury (properly the
damage done to a cargo in transit).
Avarie, in late Lat. havaria, haveria,
answers to the Dutch havery.
AVEC, prep, with ; formerly aveuc, originally
avoc, from a barbarous Lat. abhoc, aboc,
which is a transformation of the expression
apud hoc, lit. 'with this,' apud having
A VELINE — A VO UER.
41
the signification of cum in several Merov.
and Carol, documents, as in one of the
Formulae of Marculphus, ' Apud xii
Francos debeat coniuvare.' Apud soon
lost its d (as is seen from the form apue,
found for apud in an inscription of
the Empire), and then became ap, which
passed into ab by the regular transition of
p into b (see § ili). Ab for apud is
found in a Chartulary of Louis the Pious,
*ab eum,' ' Ab his celluhs,' and in the
oldest monument of the language, the
Strasburg oaths (a.d. 814), we have ' Ab
Ludher nul plaid numquam prindrai'=:
avec Lothaire je ne ferai aucun accord.
This ab came to have the same sense as
Fr. avec. The Lat. hoc lost its h (see
§ 134) and the compd. ab-oc changing
b into V (§ 113) became avoc, a form
found in iith-cent. documents. The o of
avoc then became en (§ 79), aveuc, which
towards the 14th cent, became avec.
AVELINE, sf. a filbert ; from L. avellina.
AVENIR, vn. to occur ; from L. advenire.
For dv = i/ see § 120. Avenir (as a verb)
is now archaic : it was still in use in the
17th cent,, Ce que les prophetes ont dit de-
voir avenir dans la suiie des temps (Pas-
cal), Avenir is a doublet of advenir, q, v.
— Der, avenir (sm. arrival, the infin, taken
as a subst,, § 185), avenue (partic. subst,,
§ 187), aventme.
AVENT, sm. Advent, the coming of Jesus
Christ ; from L. adventus.
AVENTURE, sf. an adventure. See avenir.—
Der. aventurer, -eux, -ier, -iere.
AVENUE, sf. an avenue, approach. See
avenir.
AVERER, va. to aver, prove the truth of;
from L. adverare*. For dv = v see § 120.
AVERSE, sf. a shower. See verser. Averse
is a doublet of adverse, q. v.
Aversion, sf an aversion, dislike ; from L.
aversionem,
AVERTIR, va. to inform, warn ; from L.
advertere. — Der. avertisstment.
AVEU, sm. an avowal. See avouer.
AVEUGLE, adj. blind ; from L. abdeillus*,
compd. of ab (privative) and oculus, like
amens, out of one's mind, which is compd.
of a and mens. This word is old in
common Lat. ; it is found in Petronius
(ist cent.) in the phrase ' aboeulo librum
legere ' (to read with eyes shut). Abo-
culus is regularly contrd. into aboclus
(§ 51). This derivation is confirmed (§15)
by It, avocolo, now vocolo : oclus is to be
found for oculus in the Appendix ad
Probum. For b=v see § ill ; for o = eu
see § 88; for c\ = gl see § 129. — Der.
aveughr, aveuglement.
Avide, adj. greedy ; from L. avidus.
AVILIR, va. to vilify. See vil. — Der. avil-
issement.
AVINER, va. to season with wine. See vin.
AVIRON, sm. any instrument which serves to
turn an object with, an oar. See virer.
AVIS, sm. an opinion, mind, vote, advice; from
ct and vis, which, from L. visum, in O. Fr.
meant opinion, way of seeing a thing.
The medieval expression was il m'est a vis
(my opinion is that . . .). A and vis be-
came presently united in avis. — Der. aviser,
raviser, mzlaviser.
AVITAILLER, va. to provision, victual.
Vitaille in O.Fr. signified 'provisions,' from
L. victualia. For ct^^ see Hist. Gram,
p. 50 ; for the loss of u see coudre ; and,
besides, we find vitalia for victualia in
Carlov. Chartularies. — Der. ravitailler.
AVIVER, va. to polish, burnish. See vif.
— Der. raviver.
Avocat, sm. an advocate, pleader, barrister ;
from L. advocatusj Avocat is a doublet
of avoue, q. v. — Der. ai/ocasserie.
AVOINE, sf. oats ; from L. avena. For e
= oi see § 62.
AVOIR, va. to have ; from L. habere. For
the loss of h see § 134; for b = 2/ see § 113 ;
for e = oi see § 62.
AVOISINER, va. to border on. See voi-
sin.
AVORTER, va. to miscarry ; from L, abor-
tare (Varro), For h—v see § 113, — Der,
avortement, avorton.
AVOUE, sm. an attorney ; from L, advoca-
tus. For the loss of c see § 129; for
dv — v see aval and § 120; for o = ow (the
6 being treated as if it were 6) see § 81;
for -atus = -e see § 200. Avoue is a
doublet of avocat, q. v.
AVOUER, va. to avow, confess ; compd. of
vouer, q. v. The history of this word
gives us a curious example of those
changes of meaning treated of in § 15.
Originally avouer was a term of feudal
custom : avouer un seigneur is ' to re-
cognise him for one's lord,' ' to swear him
fealty, to approve all his acts.' Thence
came the second sense ' to approve.' Je
t^avouerai detout, says Racine in his Phfedre.
Corneille says, Et sans dotite son coeur vous
en avouera bien. Paul Louis Courier uses
the word in this sense, when he says in
42
A VRIL—BACHELIER.
one of his letters, Parle, ^cris, je t'avouerai
de tout. After ' approval ' it passes to
' ratification,* thence to ' recognition as one's
own,' as in avouer une lettre. Lastly it
means *to recognise 'generally, 'to avow.' —
Der. aveu (verbal subst., § 184), A^%avouer
(whose verbal subst. is d^sav^w).
AVRIL, sm, April; from L. apriLis. For
p=v see § III.
Axe,5m. an axis; from L, axis. — Der. oxille,
of which the doublet is aisselle, q. v.
Axiome, sm. an axiom ; from Gr. a{ia)/jia.
Axonge, sf. (Pharm.) axunge; from L.
axungia (pig's fat, in Pliny).
Azote, sm. (Chem.) azote ; a word made up
of Gr. a priv. and ^<ui].
+ Azur, sm. azure, sky-blue. This word,
which can be traced in Fr. back to the ilth
cent., is of Eastern origin, a corruption of
Low Lat. lazzurum, lazur, which is the
Persian lazur, the stone now called lapis
lazuli (§ 31).
Azyme, sm. unleavened bread ; from Gr.
d^vfJios.
B.
Babeurre, sf. butter-milk. In 1604 Nicot's
Diet, has Batbeurre, instrument pour hattre
le lait. The implement thus gave its name
to the substance it created. For change of
sense see § 13. Batbeurre is a compd.
of bat (see battre) and beurre. For such
compds. of subst. and verb see Hist. Gram,
p. 1 76 ; for loss of t see Hist. Gram,
p. 81.
BABILLER, vn. to babble, chatter (15th cent,
in the Farce de Patelin) ; an onomatop.
word (§ 34). Cp. analogous words in
other languages ; Engl, babble. Germ, bab-
heln. — Der. babilUTd,babilhge, babil (verbal
subst.).
BABINE, sf. a lip, chops (of apes, etc.) (i6th
cent, in Beroalde de Verville, p. 258); der.,
with suffix ine, from root bab (a lip), of
Germ, origin, found in several mod. Germ,
patois as b'dppe. For pp=6 see § ill.
tBabiole, sf. a plaything; from It. bab-
bole.
+ Babord, sm. (Naut.) larboard, port; from
Germ, bachbord.
+ Babouche, sf. a slipper; from Ar.
baboudj.
BABOUIN, sm. a baboon, monkey. Origin
unknown {baboin in R. Estienne's Diet.,
1549). I know no example of the word
before the 14th cent., but it certainly existed
in the 13th, as we read in an English in-
ventory of 1295, in Ducange, 'Imago
B.V. . . . cum pede quadrato stante super
quatuor parvos babewynos;' and the
verb bebuinare signified, in the 13th cent.,
to paint grotesque figures in MSS.
BAG, sm. a ferryboat ; from Netherl. bak (in
15th cent, in Eustache Deschamps). From
this prim, has come the dim. bachot, a little
bac, or boat. For the suffix 0/ see § 281.
For c — ch see § 128. Bac also signifies
a trough ; brewers call the wooden vessel
in which they prepare their hops a bac. In
this sense the word has produced another
dim. baquet ; for dim. in -et see ablette.
For transition of sense from boat to vat
see § 13.
Baccalaur6at, sm. bachelorship. See
bachelier.
Bacchanales, sf. pi. bacchanalia ; from
L. bacchanalia.
Bacchante, sf. a Bacchante, priestess of
Bacchus; from L. bacchantem.
BACHE, sf. (l) an awning, (2) cistern, (3)
frame. Origin unknown (a word not older
than the 19th cent.).
BACHELIER, sm. a bachelor. Prov. bac-
calar. It. baccalare, Merov. Lat. bacca-
larius* (a man attached to a baccalaria,
or grazing-farm). ' Cedimus res proprie-
tatis nostrae ad monasterium quod vocatur
Bellus Locus, cum ipsa baccalaria et
mansis,' from a Donation of 895, Chartulary
of Beaulieu, p. 95. Baccalaria, which is
connected with baccalator, a cow-herd,
found in 9th-cent. documents, comes from
baccalia, a herd of cows, which from
bacca, a cow, a form used for vacca in
Low Lat. For change of v into b see § 1 40.
Baccalarius is then rightly a cow-herd,
a farm-servant; moreover, in Carolingian
texts which have lists of serfs we see that
baccalarius and baccalaria are applied
only to young persons over sixteen years of
age, old enough to be engaged on field-
labour : thus, in a Descriptio mancipio-
rum, or list of property of the Abbey of St.
Victor at Marseilles (9th cent.), we find a
JBA CHIQUE — BA GA RRE.
43
list of serfs living on a colonica (or
breadth of land tilled by a colonus) :
' Colonica in Campania : Stephanus, colo-
nus ; uxor Dara ; Dominicus, filius bacca-
larius; Martina, filia baccalaria, Vera,
filia annorum xv ' (Chart, of S. Victor,
ii. 633). The word has thus passed through
a series of meanings before reaching its
present modern sense. The bachelier, farm-
servant, attached to a baecalaria, works
under a colonus ; this word then takes the
sense, in feudal custom, of a lower vassal
who marches under the banner of another ;
then it comes to mean a youth too young
to carry his banner as yet, who serves under
a lord ; then, in old University speech, he is
a young man who studies under a Master,
with a view to gaining the degree below
that of Doctor ; lastly, it means a graduate
in a Faculty.
Baccalarium becomes bacalarium by
cc — e, whence in nth cent, baceler. For
a = e see § 54; for arium = 5r see Hist.
Gram. p. 1 84. Baceler in 1 2th cent, becomes
hacheler: for c = ch see § 128. Bacheler in
13th cent, becomes bachelier: for eT = ier
see § 66. From O. Fr. bachelier comes
through the Normans the Engl, bachelor.
Let us add that towards the end of the
middle ages bachelier, in the sense of a
Graduate in a Faculty, was latinised into
baccalaureus by the University clerks,
who also gave to this new-formed word the
et)'^mology bacca lauri, thus alluding to
Apollo's bay. After inventing baccalau-
reus (a word found in 15th cent, in N. de
Clemengis de Studio Theol.), they made out
of it baccalaiireatus, which was then
turned into baccalaureat. It is hardly neces-
sary to add that this etymology has no
foundation.
Bachique, adj. Bacchic; from L. bacchi-
cus.
BACHOT, sm. a wherry (1549, R. Estienne's
Diet.) ; see bac. — Der. bachoteur.
BACLER, va. to bar, fasten (door or window) ;
a word not found in Fr. before the 17th
cent. It came in towards the end of the
l6th cent, from Prov. baclar, to close a door
with a wooden bar, a baculus, whence
baculare, whence baclar by loss of u
(§ 52). In 1604 Nicot's Diet, gives this
definition of bacler: Bacler estfermer huys
avec un baston par dedens, Pessulum fori-
busobdere; et s' entend de ce petit baston
ou cheville d'un pied de long qjii ferme
I'huys en maniere de verroil de fer. From
this literal sense the word got, in the mid-
dle of the 1 7th cent., the figurative sense of
' closing an affair'; and in 1690 Furetiere's
Diet, says, Bacler, fermer avec des chaines
barres, bateaux . . . on dit figiircment et
bassement: C'est une affaire baclee, c'est a
dire conclue et arretee. For change of
meaning see § 1 3. The original meaning
of 'to shut' remains in some technical
phrases, such as bacler un port, to close
it with chains ; bacler une riviere, etc,
— Der. debdcler, debacle (verbal subst.).
+ Badaud, sm, a booby, ninny; introd.
towards the 16th cent, from Prov. badau,
which is connected with Lat. badare (see
under bayer).
BADIGEON, adj. stone-coloured (1690, Fure-
tiere's Diet.). Origin unknown. — Der. ba-
digeonner, -age.
t Badiner, vn. to jest, make merry ; from
Prov. badiner, which is connected with Lat,
badare (see bayer). For badiner from
bader, cp, trottener, trotter. — Der, badimge,
-erie.
BADINE, sf. a switch (not found in Diet,
before the present cent.); verbal subst.
of badiner (see badin), of which Richelet's
Diet. (1728) says, Badiner, joiier et
folatrer de la main. A badine is something,
then, to amuse the hand : Trevoux's Diet.
(1743) says, Badines, pincettes legeres
qu'on appelle ainsi parce qu'elles servent a,
badiner et a s'amuser en arrangeattt, quel-
ques charbons. Hence can easily be seen
how the word coqi^es to mean ' a switch,
cane,' to hold in the hand and 'flirt^but
not to use.
BAFOUER, va. to baffle, scoff at (l6th
cent, in Montaigne, ii. 153); from O. Fr,
baffer, beffer. A word of Germ, origin,
from Netherl, beffen. For e = a cp. Hist.
Gram. p. 48.
Bafrer, vn. to gourmandise, stuff; from
L, baferare*, der. from bafer, found
in a Gloss, published by Mai (Class, auct.
Fragm. viii) : ' Bafer, grossus, turgidus,
ventriculosus.' Baf(e)rare, contr. to baf-
rare, becomes bafrer by are = er. — Der.
bafre (verbal subst.), bafreur.
BAGAGE, sf. baggage ; deriv. in age (§ 248)
of bague, which originally meant ' parcels,'
' bundles.' The word remains in the phrase
Sortir d'un danger vie et bagues sauves.
Bague comes from Celt. (Gael, bag, a parcel,
see § 19).
Bagarre, sf. a hubbub, fray. Origin un-
known.
44
BA GA TELLE^BALLOT.
t Bagatelle, sf. a trifle; introd. in the
1 6th cent, from It. hagatella.
tBagne, sm. galleys; introd. in l6th cent,
from It. bagno. Bagne is a doublet of
hain, q. v.
BAGUE, sf. a ring ; from L. bacoa, which
bears the sense of a ring in early middle
ages. For 00 =g see adjuger.
+ Baguette, s/". a switch, rod, wand; in-
trod. in 1 6th cent, from It. bacchetta.
+ Bahut, sm. a chest, a trunk ; from M.H.G.
behut, a hutch for provisions.
BAI, adj. bay ; from L. badius, bay-coloured
(in Varro). For the loss of the d see alouette
. and appiiyer.
BAIE, sf. a bay ; from L. baia (in Isidore
of Seville) : ' Hunc portum veteres vocabant
baias.'
BAIE, sf. a berry; from L. bacca, baca.
For the loss of the c see ami.
BAIGNER, va. to bathe ; from L. balneare.
The 1 disappears, as in albula, able, q. v.;
and baneare becomes baigner, by the
change of ne into gn (see cigogne), and of
a into ai (see aigle). — Der. bain (verbal
subst., see aboi), baigneur, baignoire.
BAIL, sm. a lease, verbal subst. of battler, to
lease, give by contract (still used in sense of
*to give,' as in // lui bail la cent coups),
had in O. Fr., under the form bailler, the
sense of to hold, keep, administer ; whence
the deriv. bail\i, fcaz/liage. Bailler comes
from L. bajulare. For the loss of the u,
and change of baj'lare into bai'lare, and
thence into bailler, see aider.
BAILLER, vn. to yawn. O. Fr. baailler, Prov.
badailler, Cat. badallar, from L. bada-
culare*, dim. of L. badare. Atonic u
disappears : for cl = // see Hist. Gram. p. 71 ;
for loss of d (ba(d)ac'lare, baailler) see
§ 1 20. — Der. bdillement, eniTebdiller.
BAILLER, va. to deliver, lease. See bail.
BAILLI, sm. a bailiff; BAILLIAGE, sm. a
bailiwick. See bail.
BAILLON, sm. a gag ; from L. baculonem,
deriv. of baculus. Atonic ti disappears :
for ol = il see Hist. Gram. p. 71. — Der.
Millonntx.
BAIN, sm. a bath. See baigner. Bain is a
doublet of bagne.
Baionnette, sf. a bayonet ; a weapon
named from Bayonne, where it was invented.
BAISER, va. to kiss ; from L. basiare. For the
transposition of the i see Hist. Gram. p. 77.
BAISSER, vn. to lower. See bas. — Der. baisse,
baissieTj abaisser, rzbaisser, rzbais, surbaisser.
BAL, sm. a ball, verbal subst. of O.Fr. bailer, to
dance, from L. ballare. — Der. bal\et. Bal- ,
lade, a ballad, came in 14th cent, from Prov. !
ballada. Baladin, a mountebank, also from
Prov. baladin, is connected with the verb
balar, to dance.
t Baladin, sm. a dancer, mountebank. See
bal.
BALAFRE, sf. a gash. Origin unknown.
BALAI, sm. a broom. O. Fr. balain, from
Celt. (Breton balaen). — Der. balaytx.
+ Balais, adj. a balass (ruby). It. balascio,
late Lat. balascius, a word introd. from the
East with many other terms of jewellery, and
der. from Ar. balchash, a kind of ruby.
BALANCE, sf. a balance, scales : from L.
bilancem. This change of atonic i into a
is to be found in common Lat. (as in calan-
drus for cylindrus in Schuchardt, sal-
vaticus for silvaticus, in the Glosses of
Cassel, It occurs in Fr. in such words as
cylandrus, calandre ; lingua, langue
(Hist. Gram. p. 48). See andouille.
Balance is a doublet of bilan, q. v. — Der.
balancer, -poire, -ier.
Balauste, sm. a pomegranate-tree ; from L.
balaustium.
BALAYER, va. to sweep. See balai. Der.
balayem.
Balbutier, I'M. to stammer; from L. bal-
butire.
fBalcon, sw. a balcony; introd. in l6th
cent, from It. balcone.
^Baldaquin, STW. a baldaquin, canopy; in-
trod. in 16th cent, from It. baldacchino.
BALEINE, sf. a whale ; from L. balaena.
For ae = « see § 104. — Der. baleineau, -ier.
BALISE, sf. a buoy, beacon. Origin unknown.
— Der. balisex.
BALISIER, sm. (Bot.) carmacorus, a kind of
Indian cane. Origin unknown.
Baliste, sf a balista (for slinging stones) ;
from L. balista.
BALIVERNE, sm. nonsense, stuff. Origin
unknown.
+ Ballade, sf a ballad. See bal.
BALLE, sf. a ball, from O. H. G. balla.—
Der. ballon, -ot, de6a//er, emballex.
BALLE, sf. chaff. Origin unknown.
BALLET, sm. a ballet. See bal.
BALLON, sm. n balloon. See balle (i). — Der.
ballonne.
BALLOT, sm. a bale, package. See balle ( 1 ). —
Der. ballolter, originally to vote by means of
ballottes, little balls ; still used in that sense
by Montaigne : Le peuple neut pas le cceur
de prendre les ballottes en main. — Der.
fea//o/tage.
BALOURDE — BARA GOUIN.
45
t Balourde, sm. a dolt, dullard ; introd, in
1 6th cent, from It. balordo. — Der. ba-
lonrd'ise.
Balsamine, sf. balsam; from L. balsam-
inus.
Balsamique, adj. balsamic; from L. bal-
samicus, from balsamum, balsam, balm.
f Balustre, sm. a balustrade, banisters; in-
trod. in 1 6th cent, from It. balaustro. — Der.
balustrade, answering to It. balaustrata.
f Balzan, sm. a white-footed horse; introd.
in 1 6th cent, from It. balzano.
\ Bambin, sm. a babe; introd. in i6th cent,
from It. bambino,
t Bamboo he, j^/". a puppet; from It. bam-
boccio.
fBambou, sm. bamboo; a Hindu word,
introd. from India by travellers (§ 31).
BAN, sm. ban, a proclamation, ordinance ; of
Germ, origin, from H. G. batman, to or-
dain, publish a decree or sentence. As a
feudal term the four a ban ox four banal is
the oven at which all the vassals were bound
to bake their bread, by ban of their lord :
there were also moulins banaux, putts ban-
aux, i. e. mills and wells to which all per-
sons subject to a seignorial jurisdiction or
ban were bound to go, and hence the origin of
the word banal; meaning (i) what is used
by all alike; and then (2), by a natural
transition, that which is well known to all,
vulgar, without originality. The expres-
sion rompre son ban signifies lit. to break
the command, or ban, imposed on one.
Ban in certain cases has taken the special
. sense of a sentence of banishment, and in
the phrase mettre au ban, the actual sense
of banishment. In O. Fr. bannir had a
corn^A. forbannir (for = hors, and bannir),
a reminiscence of which remains in the
Vfordforban, q. v. From the word ban, in
sense of permission, comes bandon, permit,
whence the phrase a bandon = in liberty,
whence abandonner, q. v.
BANAL, adj. common, vulgar. See ban. —
. Der. banalhe.
+ Banane, sf. a banana ; introd. from India
by travellers (§ 31). — Der. bananier.
BANC, sm. a bench ; from O. H. G. banc.
. Banc is a doublet of banque, q. v. — Der.
banquet (cp. the Germ, tafel, which means
both table and feast), banquette.
BANCAL,arf/. bandy-legged. Origin unknown.
BANDE, sf. a band, strip (of stuff), from
. O. H. G. band. — Der. bandea.VL (formerly
- bandeX, whence bandellette), -er, -age,
-agiste.
BANDE, sf. a troop, band; from Germ.
bande.
+ Banderole, sf a streamer, pennant ;
introd. in 1 6th cent, from It. banderuola.
t Bandidre, sf. a banner, streamer; introd.
in 1 6th cent, from It. bandiera. Bandiere
is a doublet of banniere, q. v.
+ Bandit, sm. a bandit; introd. in l6th
cent, from It. bandito. Bandit is a doublet
of banni.
t Bandouli^dre, sf (i) a bandoleer, (2) a
shoulder belt; introd. in i6th cent, from
It. bandoliera.
BANLIEUE, sf. suburbs, precincts; in cus-
tomary Lat. banleuca, from leuca (a
league) and ban. Leuca had, in medieval
Lat., the sense not only of a league, but of
an indefinite extent of territory : it is
found with this meaning in the Capitu-
laries of Charles the Bald, and also in the
modern Fr. banlieue. Banlieue, properly the
extent of ban, is the territory within which
a ban is of force (for the etymology see ban
and lieue), and thence a territory subject to
one jurisdiction.
BANNE, sf. an awning, tilt (of a wagon) ; from
L. benna (a car of osier), noticed by
Festus as a word of Gaulish origin.
BANNlJlRE, sf. a banner, dim. of a radical
6a«*, from Low Lat. bandum, der. from
Germ. band. Banniere is a doublet of
bandiere, q. v. — Der. banneret.
BANNIR, va. to banish. See ban.
t Banque, sf. a bank ; introd. in i6th cent,
from It. banca. Ba?ique is a doublet of
banc, q. v. — Der. banqmer.
tBanqueroute, sf bankruptcy; introd.
in 1 6th cent, from It. bancarotta. — Der.
banquerout'xex.
BANQUET, sm. a banquet. See banc— Der.
banqueter.
BAPTEME, sm. baptism ; formerly baptesme ;
from L. baptisma. For i = e see § 72;
for loss of s see § 148.
Baptiser, va. to baptize; from L. bapti-
zare.
Baptistdre, sm. a baptistery; from L.
baptisterium.
BAQUET, sm. a tub, trough. See bac.
Baragouin, sm. jargon, gibberish ; origi-
nally the Bas-Breton language, now any
unintelligible speech. A word of hist,
origin (see § 33). Baragouin, written by
Rabelais baraguoin, is formed from two
Breton words bar a (bread) and gwin (wine),
words which occurred most often in conver-
sation between the Bas-Br&tons and the
46
BA RA Q UE — BA RRIQUE,
French, and so applied by the latter as a
nickname to the Breton tongue. — Der.
haragouintx, -age.
+ Baraque, sf. a barrack ; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. baracca.
BARATTER, va. to churn. Origin unknown.
— Der. baratte (verbal subst.).
+ Sarbacane, ^f. a barbican ; introd. from
the East by the Crusaders, like many other
military terms. Barbacane (originally bar-
baquane in Joinville) is the transcription of
the Ar. barbak-khaneh (a rampart).
Barbara, adj. barbarous ; from L. bar-
barus. — Der. barbarie, -isme.
BARBE, sf. a beard ; from L. barba. — Der.
barbicbe, barbe\e, barbier, barbxi, barbve,
^barber, 6ar6ouiller, q. v.
BARBEAU, sm. a barbel. O. Fr. barbel,
from barbellus, dim. of barbus. For
ellus = ea74, see agneau. Another dim. of
barbus is barbillon.
+ Barb on, sm. a greybeard, old dotard;
introd. in i6th cent, from Sp. barbon (§ 26).
BARBOTER, vn. to dabble, muddle. Origin
unknown.
BARBOUILLER, va. to daub, besmear. Ori-
ginally se barbotiiller meant * to dirty one's
beard,' then to dirty oneself generally. —
Der. debarbouiller, barbouilhge, barbouil-
/eur.
+ Barcarolle, s/". a barcarole; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. barcarola (song of the
Venetian gondoliers). Barcarolle is a
doublet of barquerolle.
BARD, sm. a hand-barrow. O. Fr. bar, a word
of Germ, origin, from O. H. G. bara (a
barrow). — Der. border, bardem, debarder
(to discharge a load), debardeur (properly
a workman who unloads wood). The dress
of the debardeur introduced into fancy
balls has given the word a fresh sense.
BARDE, sf. (i) bard, horse-armour, (2) thin
slices of bacon with'which woodcocks or
partridges are larded. Origin unknown. —
Der. bardtT.
Barde, sm. a bard ; from L. bardus.
BARGUIGNER, vn. to haggle. Origin un-
known.
BARIL, sm. a barrel. Origin unknown. —
Der. barihtt.
BARIOLER, va. to variegate; from L. bis-
regulare* (to stripe with divers colours).
Hegulare, which becomes re-ulare by
the regular dropping of the medial g (see
Hist. Gram. p. 82), and ri-ulare by change
of eu into iu (see § 60), produced O. Fr.
riuler, changed into rioler by the ordinary
transformation of u into before a liquid
(see § 93). Riole in Ambroise Pare is used
as meaning freckled, spotted. For bis = ba
see Hist. Gram. p. 48 ; and for the loss of
the s see § 148. For the meaning and
form of the word, see bis. — Der. bariohge.
BARLONG, adj. twice as long as broad,
parallelogram-shaped ; from L. bis-longus.
For i = a see Hist. Gram. p. 48; for s = r
see Hist. Gram. p. 5 7, See also bis.
Baromdtre, sm. a barometer; a word
formed by the learned by the help of the
two Gr. words 0apos and /ierpov.
BARON, sm. a baron. Origin unknown. —
Der. baronne, baronmge, baronnet, baron-
nie.
t Baroque, a<^'. (l) irregular-shaped, (2)
whimsical, odd. Originally a jeweller's term
(a baroque pearl was one not spherical, of a
strange shape) it soon was much extended in
sense, and was applied to the shape of dif-
ferent objects (as furniture, houses, etc.),
then to intellectual qualities {une pensee
baroque = a. whimsical thought). Baroque
was introd. in 1 6th cent, from Sp. barruco,
and Port, barroco, in connection with the
pearl trade (§ 26).
t Barque, sJF. a bark ; not found in Fr. be-
fore the i6th cent.: from L. barca(a little
boat, in Isidore of Seville), through the in-
termediate Sp. or It. forms barca, these
two nations on the Mediterranean having
provided the Fr. language with many sea-
faring terms. The form barque proves that
the word did not come direct from Lat. to
Fr., for barca would have produced fearcA^,
as area came to arche. Barque is a doublet
of barge, barche. — Der. embarquer, embarc-
ation, debarquer, -ement.
BARRE, sf. 2L bar. Low Lat. barra, from
Celt. bar. — Der. barreau, properly a little
bar : this law term designates the enclosure,
divided oif by railings from the rest of the
hall, reserved for barristers. — Der. barrVexe,
barrtr, barrage.
BARRETTE, sf. a cap, bonnet; from L.
birretum, a word found in the 6th cent,
meaning a cap : the phrase ' birreto auri-
culari' is in a Chartulary of a.d. 532. For
i = a see Hist. Gram. p. 48. Barrette is a
doublet of beret, q. v.
f Barricade, sf. a barricade; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. barricata. — Der. barri-
cader.^
BARRIERE, sf. a barrier, fence. See barre.
BARRIQUE, sf. a barrel, cask. Origin un-
known.
BARYTON — BA UDET.
47
Baryton, stn. barytone ; from Gr. ^apv-
TOVOS.
BAS, (i) adj. low; from L. bassus (in Isi-
dore of Seville, and stated by Papias to =
curtus, humilis). A word clearly belong-
ing to the popular Roman speech. — Der.bass-
esse, basset, basson, 6aisser, a&aisser, rafea-
isser, rafeais. (2) sot. a stocking ; abbrev.
from the phrase has de chausses, used for-
merly in contradistinction from haut de
chausses.
Basalte, sm. basalt; from L. basaltes. —
Der. basaltiqae.
BASANE, sf. sheep-leather. Origin unknown.
— Der. basaner, basaft6.
BASCULE, s/. poise, balance. Origin un-
known.
Base, sf. a basis, foundation; from L. basis.
— Der. baser.
Basilic, sm. a basilisk ; from L, basiliscus.
Basilique, sf. a basilica ; from L. basilica.
Basiligue is a doublet of basoche, q. v.
BASOCHE, sf. a legal tribunal, which in the
middle ages had cognisance of difficulties
and disputes between the Clerks of the
Parliament ; from L. basilica. Basil-
(i)ca contrd. into basil'ca (§51), became
baselche (for a = ch see § 126), then
baseuche (by softening of 1 into m, see
agneau), and thence the modern basoche,
which seems at first sight very unlike the
primitive Lat. word. The expression Clerc
de la Basoche de Paris, simply meant a
clerk of the tribunal of Paris : these clerks
were styled clercs basilicams, and in popular
language basochiens, a word answering
exactly to basilicanus. Basoche is a
doublet of basilique.
Basque, sf. a* skirt. Origin unknown.
Basquine, sf. a petticoat; from Sp.basquina.
Basse, sf. (Mus.) bass. See bas.
BASSIN, sm. a basin. O. Fr. bacin and bachin,
from L. baech.inon * (a vessel), which Gre-
gory of Tours cites as a word of rustic use :
' Paterae quas vulgo bacchinon vocant.' —
Der. bassiner, bassinet, bassinoire.
t Bastide, sf a country house : from Prov.
bastida, partic. subst. of Prov. vb. act. bastir,
answering to Fr, batir. Bastide is a doublet
of hade, q. v.
BASTILLE, sf. a fortress, Bastille. See batir.
BASTINGAGES, sm. netting. Origin un-
known.
+ Bastion, sm. a bastion ; introd. in i6th
cent, from It, bastione.
tBastonnade, sf. a bastinado; introd.
in i6th cent, from It. bastonnata, as were
many other terms of military discipline.
Bastonnade is a doublet of batonnee.
BAT, SOT. a packsaddle. O. Fr. bast, from L.
bastum, a word of common Lat.: 'Sagma,'
says a gloss writer, ' sella quam vulgus
bastum vocat, super quo componuntur sar-
cinae.' For as = d see Hist. Gram. p. 81.
— Der. bdter.
BATAILLE, sf a battle ; from L. batalia, a
word which in common Lat. answered to
the Class. Lat. pugna. The testimony of
Cassiodorus is positive : ' Quae vulgo bata-
lia dicuntur exercitationes militum signifi-
cant.* For -alia = -aille see § 278. — Der.
baiailler, bataillewr.
+ Bataillon, sot. a battalion; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. battaglione.
BATARD, sot. a bastard, from bastard, a son
of a bast. For as = a see Hist. Gram. p.
81; for the affix -ard see § 196. For
other details see M. G. Paris, Histoire poet-
ique de Charlemagne, p. 441.
BATARDEAU, sot. a dyke, dam ; dim. of
O. Fr. bastard (a dyke). Origin unknown.
BATEAU, SOT, a boat. O. Fr. batel ; dim. of
a root bat, which survived in Merov. Lat.
batus (used in 7th cent. = bateau, boat).
This word, of Germ, origin, like most Fr.
sea terms, comes from A.S. bat. For -el =
-eau see § 282.
BATELEUR, sm. a juggler, mountebank.
Origin unknown.
+ Batifoler, vn. to trifle, play ; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. batifolle (to play at
fighting under the ramparts).
BATIR, va. to build. Origin unknown. —
Der. batiment, bathse, 6as/ille (from the
O. Fr. form bastir').
BATIR, va. to baste (of needlework), formerly
bastir, of Germ, origin ; O. H. G. bestan
(to sew).
BATON, sm. a stick. Origin unknown. —
Der. bdtonnev, batonnieT.
BATTERIE, sf a battery. See battre.
Battologie, sf. vain repetition; from Gr.
PaTToXoyia.
BATTRE, va. to beat. O. Fr. batre, from L.
batere, popular form of batuere. For
the loss of the ii see coudre ; for loss of e
see § 51, — Der, feasant, battoix, battevr,
battene, battage, battement, battue (partic.
subst,), zbattre, rabattre, combattre (whence
com6a/, verbal subst,), debattre (whence de-
bat, verbal subst.), rebattre, xebattu, ebattre
(whence ebat, verbal subst,).
BAUDET, sm. an ass, donkey ; a word of
hist, origin (see § 33). In O. Fr. there
48
BA UDRIER — BEFFROI,
was an adj. baud, originally hald, from
O. H. G. bald, gay, pleased, content. (For
1 ■! M, see § 157.) This adj. baud, fre-
quently used in O. Fr., survives in modern
Fr. in the compd. s'ebaudir, to rejoice
( = 6tre baud).
Again, we know that in the middle ages
there was developed, if not invented, a
great cycle of fables on the life and adven-
tures of beasts, each personified under a
special and significant name. Thus the Fox
was Maitre Renard (lit. the cruel) ; the
Bear was Bernard', the Ram, Belin. The
Ass, ever gay and content (the beast ever
baud, as they said in the llth cent.), re-
ceived in that mythology the surname of
Maitre Baudet, or Baudouin (both names
dim. of baud). This soubriquet stuck to
the Ass, which is still nicknamed in Fr.
Baudet, ' the sprightly,' just as the Fox still
goes by the name of Reynard.
B A UDRIER, sm. a baldric, shoulder-belt;
from L. baltSrarius*, deriv. of balteus.
Balt(d)rarius loses its §, see § 52; it
then becomes baudrier by changing (l)
-arius into -ier (see § 198), (2) tr into dr
(see § 117), (3) al into au (see § 157).
The present sense of baudrier is not
earlier than the 14th cent. In the 12th
cent., to designate the soldier's shoulder-
belt, the word baudre was adapted (from
balteratus, deriv. from balteus), and
the maker of these baudres was called a
baudrier. This distinction, well marked in
the early middle ages, became obliterated
in the T4th cent., which in its ignorance
gave the name of the thing made to the
maker (just as it thought Piraeus was the
name of a man). We have seen a similar
example of confusion between aragne and
araignee, q, v. See also § 198.
BAUDRUCHE, sm. goldbeater's skin. Origin
unknown.
BAUGE, sf. a lair. Origin unknown.
BAUME, sm. balm, balsam. O. Fr. bausme,
from L. balsSjuum. Bals(a)muin loses
its a (§ 51), Bals'mum produced O. Fr.
bausme by change of al into au (see § 1 5 7).
For the loss of s in bausme see Hist. Gram,
p. 81. — Der. baumier, embaumer.
BAVARD. adj. talkative. See bave. — Der.
bavarder, -age.
BAVE, sf. drivel, slaver, foam ; an onomato-
poetic word. — Der. bavette, baveux, bavnd,
bavure.
BAVOLET, sm. head-dress of a country lass,
curtain (of a bonnet). Origin unknown.
BAYER, vn. to gape. O. Fr. baer, Prov.
badar. It. badare; from L. badare (in
Isidore of Seville = to gape). For loss of
mpdial d see § 1 20 ; for -are = -er see
§ 263. Another form of baer is beer, by
change of atonic a into e (§ 54). This
O. Fr. verb is gone from modern Fr., leav-
ing its pres. part, b^ant. — The Prov. badur
had two deriv. badau and badin (q. v.)
which have got footing in modern Fr.
+ Bazar, sm. a bazaar; introd. by travel-
lers from the East. Ar. bdzar, a market.
BEANT (p. pres. of beer or bayer) adj. gap-
ing. See bayer.
B^at, sm. a devotee, bigot; from L. bea-
tus. — Der. fcfi'a/itude, 6<?a/ifique, fee'arifier,
fct'a/ification.
BEAU, adj. fine, beautiful. O. Fr. bel. For /
= M see § 157. Bel comes from L. bel-
lus. — Der. belUUe, embellk.
BEAUCOUP, adv. much; from beau and
coup, q. V. The O. Fr. phrase was more
often grant coup than beaucoup: Le rot
eut grant coup de la terre du comte,
says Joinville. This sense of grant is
to be seen in other phrases, as un beau
mangeur.
+ Beaupr§, sm. a bowsprit; from Engl.
bowsprit (§ 28).
BEAUTE, sf. beauty. O. Fr. belte, originally
beltet, from L. bellitatem. The 1 is
dropped after the rule (§ 52); then it
becomes beaute by changing (l) el into
eau (§ 157), (2) -atem into -e (§ 230).
BEG, sm. a beak, bill; from L. beccus, a
word quoted by Suetonius as of Gaulish
origin. For cc = c cp. siccus, sec;
soccus, soc, saccus, sac, and § 168. —
Der. becquetet, becusse, bequiWe (properly
canne u bee).
B6carre, sm. B natural, thence a natural
(Mus.) ; a transcription of the abbreviation
B B. This was formerly called B carre :
B being Si in the scale of La, was called
B carre (i. e. = S dur, hard B) when in its
natural tone, as distinguished from B mol
(i. e = 5 moti, soft B), for Bt7.
BECASSE, sf. a woodcock. See bee— Der.
becasshie.
BECHE, sf. a spade ; from L. becca*, fem.
form of beccus. For -ca = -cA^ see § 126.
— Der. bechtr.
BEDAINE, sf. a paunch. Origin unknown.
BEDEAU, sm. a beadle. O. Fr. bedel, a word
of Germ origin, from O. H. G. butil, a
herald.
BEFFROI, sm. a belfry. O. Fr. berfroi, in
bSga yersequille.
49
Low Lat. berfredxis. For e = oi see
§ 63. This word, of Germ, origin, like
most terms of military art in the middle
ages, comes from M. H. G. bervrit, a watch-
tower.
BEGAYER, vn. to stammer. See begue.
BEGUE, adj. stammering. Origin unknown.
— Der. begaytr.
BEGUEULE, sf. a haughty disdainful woman,
a prude. O. Fr. beegueule, or gueule bee. For
the etymology see under gueule and bayer :
bee is the past partic. of beer, see bayer.
Avoir la gueule bee, or etre gueule bee, is
properly to remain bouche beante, open-
mouthed : begueule, formerly signified folly,
now prudery.
Beguin, sm. a Beguine's head-dress (the Be-
guines are a Neth. religious order) ; a word
of hist, origin (§ 33), — Der. emb^guinei.
BEIGNET, sm. a fritter. Origin unknown.
BSJAUNE, sm. (l) a nias hawk, (2) a ninny.
O. Fr. becjautie, a form which makes the
deriv. quite plain. See bee nadjaune.
BEL, adj. fair. See beau.
t B e 1 a n d r e, s/. a bilander, an EngHsh word,
^signifying a flat-bottomed coasting vessel.
! BELER, vn. to bleat ; from L. balare. For
a = e see § 54. The form belaxe for
balare is to be found in Varro. — Der.
belement.
\ BELETTE, sf. a weasel; dim. of O. Fr. bele.
For dim. in -etfe see § 28 1. The O. Fr.
bele is Lat. bella ; belette is therefore — la
jolie petite bete (the pretty little beast).
While speaking (§ 15) of these popular me-
taphors, we remarked that their characteristic
feature was that they were never isolated,
but occurred side by side in several Euro-
pean languages. This is true of this word :
in Dan. the weasel is called den kjcenne (the
pretty) ; in Bavarian schonthierlein (the
jiretty little beast); and in O.Eng. /a/ry.
BELIER, sm. a ram. The Neth. bell (a bell)
produced Low Lat. bella, and in Fr. bele (a
little bell), which has gone without leaving
a trace of itself, though its existence is re-
vealed by the word beliere, q. v., der. from
it, and by belier, which rightly means ' he
who bears the bell,' We know the custom
of fastening a bell to a ram's neck, as a signal
for the flock and the shepherd. Thence by
a metaphor common in Europe it comes
to designate the ram. In Eng. bellwether ;
in Neth. belhamel; and lastly, in several
Fr. provinces the belier is simply the belled-
j! jheep, thus plainly confirming the deriv. given.
|i BfiLIERE, sf. a clapper-ring. See belier.
B^LITRE, sm. a scoundrel. Origin unknown.
+ Belladone, sf. belladonna ; from It. bel-
ladonna. Belladonna is a doublet of belle
dame.
Bellig^rant, aof/. belligerent; from L. bel-
ligerantem.
Belliqueux, adj. warlike; from L. belli-
cosus.
+ Belv6d§re,sw.abelvidere; introd.ini6th
cent., with many other archit. terms, from
It. belvedere, which means strictly ' a beauti-
ful view,' a spot where one gets a fine view.
Belvedere is a doublet of beau voir.
B6inol, sm. (Mus.) (i) B flat, (2) flat (in
music). See becarre.
Benedicit6, sm. a grace, a blessing ; a Lat.
word signifying ' bless ye.*
Ben6dictin, sm. a Benedictine, monk of the
Order of S. Benedict.
Benediction, sf. benediction; from L. be-
nedictionem.
Benefice, sm. a benefit; from L. benefi-
cium. — Der. 6e'«y?ciaire, -er.
BENfiT, adj. silly, simple ; sm. a simpleton ;
from L. benedictus. This metaphor,
which may seem strange, is still quite cor-
rect ; the Gospel says that the Kingdom of
Heaven belongs to the ' poor in spirit,' who
are the blessed (benedicti) of God: thence
the word benedictus came to be used for
the simple, thence for the silly. For change
of ct into t see affete, and loss of medial d
see § 1 20 ; hence beneit, which by contrac-
tion took two forms btnit and benet. The
same metaphor is to be found in the word
innocent. Benet is a doublet of benoit.
B6n6vole, adj. benevolent; from L. bene-
^volus.
BENIN, adj. benign; from L, benignus.
J^'or gn = « see assener and § 131.
B^NIR, va. to bless. O. Fr. bencir. It. bene-
dire ; from L.benedicere. Bened£c(§)re,
contrd. to benedic're after the rule of Lat.
accent, became b^nir (i) by changing cr
into r, as in fac're, faire (Hist. Gram. p.
82), a change which is usually accompanied
by the formation of a diphthong in room
of the preceding vowel ; (2) by losing the
medial d (§ 120), and becoming beneir, a
form found in llth cent, in the Chanson de
Roland, which leads us on to the mod.
form. Benir is a doublet of bien dire. —
Der. betiit, benitier. For the gram, distinc-
tion between benite and benie see Hist.
Gram. p. 150. Benit is a doublet of
bentt, benoit.
BEQUILLE, sf. a crutch. See bee.
50
BERCAIL — BSVUE.
BERCAIL, sm. a sheepfold ; from L. berbSoa-
lia* for vervecalia* ; heThecemfoTvervecem
being found in the 1st cent. For v = 6
see bachelier and § 140. The 6 is dropped
after the rule given in § 51 ; and berb'calia
became bercail by reduction of bo to c after
assimilation (see § 168), and the change of
-alia into -ail, see ail and § 278.
BERCEAU, sm. a cradle. See bercer.
BERCER, va. to rock, lull. Origin unknown.
•f"B6ret, sm. a beretto, flat cap, introd. from
Beam patois {berreto)', from L. birretum*,
found in a 6th-cent. MS. Bhet is a
doublet of barrette.
+ Bergainote, sf. a bergamot pear; in-
trod. from Port, bergamofa.
BERGE, sf. a bank (of a ditch). Origin un-
known.
BERGER, sm. a shepherd ; from L. verve-
carius, berb§carius, which wasbercarius
in the 5th cent, and even earlier. Ver-
v(§)c£rius loses its S after the rule given
under accointer. Verv'carius became
berger by changing (1) v into 6, see bache-
lier ; (2) vc into c, see alleger ; (3) c into
g, see § 129; (4) -arius into -ier, see
dnier. — Der. bergerie.
Berline, sf. a berlin ; a carriage first introd.
at Berlin.
BERLUE, sf. dimness of sight ; properly a
condition of the eyes which makes people see
the same objects repeated, or even fictitious
objects ; der. indirectly from L. bis-lucere.
For bis = ber see bis ; the relation between
lue and lueur, luire, is clear.
A softened form of berlue is bellue (for r
= 1 see § 154), whose dim. is beluette, a
spark, now contrd. into bluette, q. v.
+ Ber me, sf. bench or sloping bank of
a canal ; from Germ, berme.
BERNER, va. to toss in a blanket. O. Fr.
berne, a garment, cloth. Similarly the Ro-
mans used the subst. sagatio, as they tossed
persons in a sagum (military cloak). Origin
unknown.
B6ryl, sm. a beryl; from L. beryllus.
BESACE, sf a beggar's double wallet. It.
bisaccia, from L. bisaccia (used by Pe-
tronius for a wallet with a pouch at either
end). For i = e see § 71; for -cia = -ce
see § 244.
BESAIGRE, adj. doubly acid ; from bis and
aigre, q. v.
BESAIGUE, sf. a double axe, bill; from bis
and aigue, q. v.
BESANT, sm. a bezant. Prov. bezan, It.
bizanie, originally meaning a gold coin,
struck by the Eastern Emperors, from L.
byzantius*, sc. nummus (coin of Byzan-
tium). For y = je see § 71.
BESICLES, sf. pi. spectacles. O. Fr. bericle,
meaning crystal, or spectacles ; from bery-
ciilus, beryclus*, dim. of L. beryllus
(used in both senses in medieval writers).
For r = s see arroser.
BESOGNE, sf. work, business. Origin un-
known. Besogne is a doublet of besoin.
BESOIN, sm. need, desire. Origin unknown.
— Der. besoigneux.
Bestiare, sm. a gladiator, bestiarius ; from L.
bestiarius.
Bestial, arf/. bestial ; from L. bestialis. —
Der. bestiality.
BESTIAUX, sm.pl. cattle; from L. bestialia.
For 1 = « see agneau.
Bestiole, sf. a small beast, a ninny ; from L.
^bestiola.
BfiTAIL, sm. cattle ; from L. bestialia. For
loss of s see § 148 ; for -alia=-az7 see ail
^and § 278.
BETE, sf a beast. O, Fr. beste, from L.
bestia. For loss of s see § 148. — Der.
bk'xst, zbetir, embeter.
BETOINE, sf. (Bot.) betony; from L.bet6nica
cited by Lat. authors as a word of Gaulish
origin. Betonioa loses its two short syl-
lables under the influence of the Lat. accent,
see §§ 50, 51, and the Lat. o becomes oi
by the attraction of the subsequent i : see
ckanoine &nd Hist. Gram. p. 52.
+ B6ton, sm. bitumen; from Prov. betun,
L. bitumen. Beton is a doublet of bitume.
BETTE, */. (Bot.) beet ; from L. beta. For
betterave, beetroot (in 1 6th cent, so written),
see bette and rave.
BEUGLER, vn. to low, bellow; from L.
buculare*, to low like an ox, from bucu-
lus, in Columella. Buc('u)lare, regularly
contrd. into buc'lare (see § 52), pro-
duced beugler by change of cl into gl, see
aigle ; and of u into en, a change found in
fluvius, fleuve. — Der, beuglemtnt.
BEURRE, sm. butter; from L. butyrum.
Butyrum is regularly contrd. into but'rum
(§ 51), and becomes beurre by changing
(l) u into eu, see beugler; (2) br into rr,
see § 168.
B^VUE, sf. a blunder, oversight ; formerly
besvue, a false view. Cettefausselumiere est
une b^vue de ses yeux, says a lyth-cent.
writer. This is the right meaning ; an
error springing from an optical illusion ; —
one has believed one saw something that
had no existence, or had seen amiss, had
SEZOARD— BILLET.
51
hevu, seen double. See his for bis = fee;
for vue see voir.
■fB^zoard, sm. a bezoar, in the 16th
cent, bezoar ; introd. from India by the
Port, bezuar.
BIAIS, sm. slant, slope; from L. bifacem,
used by Isidore of Seville in the sense of
squinting, of one who looks sidelong. For
loss of f see antienne ; for -acem = -ais see
vrai. — 'Der. biaiser.
Biberon, sm. a sucking-bottle, a toper ; a
bastard word formed from bibere and the
suffix -on, like forgeron {rom forger.
Bible, sf. the Bible ; from L. biblia, which
from Gr. ISipXia, collection of sacred books.
— Der. bibliqvie.
Bibliographie, sf. bibliography ; from Gr.
^i^Kiov and ypacp'q. — Der. bibliograph.
Bibliomanie, sf. bibliomania ; from Gr.
^i^Kiov and ixavia. — Der. bibliomane.
Bibliophile, sm. a lover of books; from
Gr. ^i^Xiov and (piXos.
Bibliothdque, sf. a library ; from Gr.
^i^XioOtikt]. — Der. bibliothecHre.
BICHE, sf. a hind, roebuck. Origin un-
known.
tBicoque, sf. a little paltry town, a hovel;
introd. in i6th cent, from It. bicocca.
BIDET, sm. a nag, pony. Origin unknown.
BIDON, sm. a jug, can. Origin unknown.
BIEF, sm. a mill-race. See biez.
BIEILLE, sf. a connecting rod. Origin un-
known.
BIEN, adv. well, sm. good; from L. bene.
For e = ie see § 56. — Der. bien-etre, bien-
fare, 6/enfaisant, bienhisa.nce (a word not
invented by the Abbe de Saint Pierre, as
has been said, but brought into fashion by
him), bienfa.h, 6fenfaiteur, fez'enheureux, bien-
seant, bientbt, bienveiWant, bienvenu, bien-
venue.
Biennal, adj. biennial; from L. bienna-
lis. ^
BIENSEANT, adj. becoming, proper; from
hien and seant partic. of seoir, q. v. — Der.
hienseanct.
BIENT6t, adj. soon. See tot.
BIENVEILLANT, adj. kind, benevolent;
MALVEILLANT, adj. unkind, malevolent.
One might believe, on a superficial exami-
i nation of these words, that they were formed
from veillant, partic. of veiller. This is not
the case. The old form of these words
is bienveuillant, malveuillant : veuillant
the old pres. part, of vouloir, q. v., and
hien- mal- veillant are simply = i/ott/a«/ le
hien, voulant le mal. This origin is proved
by It. benivolente : had the word been
formed from veiller, the It. form would
have been bene vegliante ; hence it is clear
that vouloir is the true original of the
words. — Der. bienveillance, malveillanct.
BIERE, sf. beer ; from O. H. G. bisr.
BI^RE, sf. a bier ; from O. H. G. hara, a
litter.
BIEVRE, sm. the beaver ; from L. bibrum
(' castorem, bibrum,' says the Schol. on
Juvenal, Sat. 12). For i = e see § 71 ; and
then for e = ie see § 56; for b=v see
§ 113. Bibrum has given bievre, like
febrim_;fei're.
BIEZ, Ibief) sm. a mill-race. O. Fr. hied. Low
L. bedum; of Germ, origin, from O.H.G.
betti, lit. of a water-course.
BIFFER, va. to strike out, erase. Origin
unknown.
tBifteck, sm. a beefsteak; a word
introd. into the Fr. language after the inva-
sions of 1814, 1815; corruption of Engl,
beefsteak.
Bifurquer, vn. to fork ; from L. bifurcus.
— Der. bifurc^tjpn.
Bigame, adj. bigamous ; from L. bigamus.
— Der. bigamie.
tBigarade, sf. a bitter orange; from
Prov. bigarrat. Origin unknown.
Bigarrer, va. to streak, chequer; a word
which does not seem to be old in the Fr.
language. Origin unknown.
BIGLE, adj. squint-eyed. Origin unknown.
BIGORNE, sf. a beaked anvil ; from L. bi-
cornis. For e=^see § 129.
BIGOT, adj. bigoted ; sm. a bigot. Origin
unknown. — Der. bigot'isme, bigoterk.
BIJOU, sm. a jewel, trinket. Origin un-
known —Der. bijouiiei, bijouttrie.
t Bilan, sm. a balance-sheet; introd. in
1 6th cent., with many other commercial
terms, from It. bilancio. Bilan is a doublet
of balance, q. v.
BILBOQUET, sm. cup and ball. Origin un-
known.
Bile, sf. bile; from L. bills. — Der. hilieux.
t Bill, sm. a bill ; an Engl, word introd, in
the first years after the Restoration into
parliamentary language. Bill is a doublet of
bulle.
BILLARD, sm. billiards. See bille.
BILLE, sf. a ball. Origin unknown. — Der.
bilhTd.
BILLE, sf. a log of wood, ready to be sawn
into planks ; from Celt. (Irish hille, a tree
I trunk). — Der. billot.
1 Billet, sm. a note, billet. The form bill a is
E2
.
5»
billeves^e—blAmer.
found in medieval Lat. parallel to Class. Lat.
bulla ; of this word billet is the dim.
BILLEVESEE, sf. nonsense, trash. Origin un-
known.
BILLON, sm. copper coin ; a word traceable
to the 13th cent. Origin unknown. — Der.
hillonntx, -age.
BILLOT, sm. a block. See hille.
BIMBELOT, sm. a plaything, toy. Origin
unknown. — Der. bimbelotier, -erie.
Binaire, adj. binary; from L. binarius.
BINER, va. to turn up the ground a second
time; from L. binaxe*, deriv. from
bintis.
Binocle, sm. binocle, double eye-glass ; a
faulty word made since the beginning of
this cent., from L. bini-oculi (bin-ocli,
bin-ocle).
Bindme, sm. a binomial; from L. bis and
Gr. vofxrj.
Biographe, sm. a biographer; from two
Gr. words, Pios and ypd<peiy. — Der. bio-
^raphie, -ique.
Bipdde, adj. two-legged ; from L. b ip e d e m.
BIQUE, s/. a she-goat. Origin unknown.
Bis, adv. again, encore; a Lat. word
used as a prefix to bisaHeul, bissac, biscuit,
etc. By changing i into e (see § 71)
bis becomes bes in besaigre, besaigue,
besace, q. v. ; and this is reduced to be in
bevue, q. v. By changing s into r (see or-
fraie) bes becomes ber in berlue, q. v., and
in berouette, q. v., which has been contrd.
to brouette, q. v, Ber before / even assimi-
lates its r into /, as in belluette, later bluette,
q. V. Lastly in the two words barlong, ba-
rioler, q. v., the prefix ber becomes bar by
changing e into a, see amender.
Along with these changes of form has
come an important change in sense; bis in
passing into the Romance languages takes a
bad sense, which affects the rest of the
compound. Thus the Sp. bis-ojo (lit. two-
eyed), Walloon bes-iemps (lit. double-time
or weather), It. bis-cantare (lit. to sing
double), Cat. bes-compte (lit. double ac-
count), signify respectively, squinting, bad
weather, to sing false, a false account.
Similarly in Fr. biscomu (lit. two-horned),
bistorne (lit. twice-bent), have taken the
sense of crooked, queer, and deformed. So
also with bevue, berlue, q. v., which etymo-
logically do not deserve the bad sense given
them by the Fr. language.
BIS, adj. brown. Origin unknown.
BISAIEUL, sm. a great-grandfather. See bis
and aieul.
fBisbille, sf. bickering, jangling; introd.
in 1 6th cent, from It. bisbiglio.
BISCAYEN, sm. a long-barrelled musket,
invented in Biscay. The name is still ap-
plied to the balls which fitted it, though
of a calibre no longer useful.
BISCORNU, adj. strange, queer, crotchety.
See bis and cornu.
BISCUIT, sm. biscuit ; from L. bis cocttis.
For oct = uit see attrait.
BISE, sf. the north wind. Origin unknown.
BISEAU, sm. a slant, bevil. Origin unknown.
t Bismuth, sm. bismuth; from Germ,
bissmuth. The ordinary form of the Germ,
word is wissmuth.
Bison, sm. a bison; from L. bison.
BISQUE, sf. odds. Origin unknown,
BISQUER, vn. to be vexed. Origin unknown.
Bissac, sm. a wallet; from L, bissacium.
Bissexte, sm. the bissextile (day) ; from L.
bissextus,the 'double-sixth,' TheRomans
once in four years reckoned two sixth days
before the Kalends of March, so that there
was a second sixth day, whence the name
bissextus, — Der. bissextWe.
Bistouri, sm. (Surg.) bistoury. Origin un-
known.
BISTOURNER, va. to twist. See bis and
tourner.
BISTRE, sm. bistre. Origin unknown. — Der.
bistrer.
BITORD, sm. spun yarn ; from L. bis tortus.
Bitume, sffz. bitumen ; from L. bitumen.
Bitume is a doublet of beton.
tBivouaC, sm. a bivouac, guard; origi-
nally bivac, from Germ, beiivache; introd.
at the time of the Thirty Years* War.—
Der. bivaqutr.
+ Bizarre, adj. strange, capricious. It
originally meant valiant, intrepid ; then
angry, headlong ; lastly strange, capricious.
From Sp. bizarro, valiant. — Der. bizarrerie.
BLAFARD, adj. wan, pallid; of Germ,
origin, from O. H. G. bleifaro.
BLAIREAU, sm. a badger. O. Fr. blereau, a
form which shows the origin of the word
better. Blereau is a dim. of ble, the blereau
being rightly an animal which feeds on
corn, ble, q, v. The Engl, badger signifies
lit. a corn merchant, and thus illustrates the
etymology of blereau. See § 15 for these
rnetaphors.
BLAMER, va. to blame. O, Fr. blasmer,
from L, blasphemare (used by Gregory
of Tours in the sense of blame) ; in
the glossaries we find ' blasphemare,
vituperare, reprehendere.' * Tantummodo
BLANC— BOIRE.
53
blasphemabatur a pluribus,' says Aymon
the Monk, ' quod esset avaritiae deditus.'
For the loss of the e see § 52. Blas'mare
gives us the O. Fr. blasmer, whence bldmer.
For the loss of the s see abime. Bldmer
is a doublet of blasphemer, q. v.
BLANC, adj. white ; from O.H.G. blanch. —
Der. blanchet, blancher, blanchatre, blajich-
ir, blanchi$sa.ge, blanchissem, blanquette.
BLANQUETTE, sf. a blanket. See blanc.
Blanquette is a doublet of blanchette.
BLASER, va. to blunt, cloy, satiate. Origin
unknown.
BLASON, sm. arms, coat of arms, in the llth
cent, a buckler, shield ; then a shield with
a coat of arms of a knight painted on it ;
lastly, towards the 15th cent, the coats of
arms themselves. Origin unknown. — Der.
blasonntr.
Blasphemer, va. to blaspheme; from L.
blasphemare. Blasphemer is a doublet
of bldmer, q. v. — Der. blaspheme (verbal
subst.), blasphemiteuT.
BLATIER, sm. a corn factor. See ble.
Blatte, sf. a cockroach; from L. blatta.
BLE, sm. corn. O. Fr. bled, Prov. blat, Low
L. bladum, abladum (meaning corn
harvested), from L. ablatum * (gathering
in, harvest, in medieval texts). Ablatum
is properly what one has gathered in and
carried off: the metaphor is not unusual
in the Indo-Germanic languages ; in Gr.
KapiTos, fruit, is lit. ' destined to be carried
off, gathered ; ' the Germ, herbst means
properly what is carried off. Ablatum
becomes ble, (i) by changing -atum. into -e,
see § 201 ; (2) by loss of initial a, as in
adamantem, diamant. Hist. Gram. p. 80.
— Der. 6/a/reau (q.v.), Watier (q.v.), in Low
L.bladarius. For -arius = -/er see § 198.
BL£ME,arf;. wan, pale ; of Germ, origin, from
Scand. bldman (bluish, livid). — Der. blemir.
BLESSER, va. to wound. Origin unknown.
— Der. blessme.
BLETTE, adj. mellow, over-ripe. Origin un-
known.
BLEU, adj. blue; of Germ, origin, from
O.H.G. blao. — Der. bleuir, bleuktie, bleuet.
* Blinde, sf. sheeting; from Germ, blende.
— Der. blinder, blindage.
BLOC, sm. a block, lump ; of Germ, origin,
from O. H. G. bloc. — Der. bloquer, de-
bloquer.
t BlockhaUS, sm. a block-house ; introd.
lately into the military art, from Germ.
. blockhaus. Blockhaus is a doublet of blocus,
• q. V. under bloc.
fBloeUS, sm. a blockade, investment. A
word introd. in the 1 6th cent., comes from
the old Germ, form blockhuis (a little fort
intended to block the communications of
a besieged town).
BLOND, adj. fair, light, flaxen. Origin un-
known. — Der. blond'm, blond'ir, blonde.
BLOQUER, va. to block. See bloc.
BLOTTIR (Se), vpr. to squat, cower, crouch ;
originally a falconry term, used of the falcon
when it gathers itself up to roost on its
perch {blot). From this special meaning
the word gets (by one of those widenings of
signification spoken of in § 12) the general
sense of to gather oneself up, crouch. Origin
unknown.
BLOUSE, (l) sf. pocket (in billiards). Origin
unknown. (2) sf. a smock-frock, blouse.
Origin unknown.
BLUET, sm. a cornflower. O. Fr. bleuet, from
bleu, q. V. For eu = M seejumeau.
BLUETTE, .<f. a spark (from hot iron, etc.),
a literary trifle, jeu d'esprit. O. Fr. beluette,
belluette, in Norm, patois berluette, dim. of
bellue (see berlue). The prim, sense of
bluette is a spark ; thus R^gnier speaks of a
great conflagration qui nait d'une bluette :
hence metaph. a little poem is called a
bluette, a passing spark of wit.
BLUTER, va. to bolt, sift (meal). O. Fr.
beluter, buleter, originally bureter, to sift
over the coarse cloth, bure, q. v. For
T = l see § 154. As a confirmation of this
origin, we find buratare in the sense of
bluter in a Lat. work of the llth cent.;
and moreover the It. use buratello for
bluteau, a bolter. — Der. blutezxx, blutok,
blutAge.
Boa, sm. a boa-constrictor; from L. boa.
Bobdche, sf. a sconce, socket. Origin un-
known.
Bobine, ./. a bobbin. Origin unknown.
BOCAGE, sm. a grove, thicket. O. Fr.
boscage, Prov. boscatge, from L. bosca-
ticum, dim. of boscum. (see bois). For
-aticum = -age see § 248 ; for the loss of
s see § 148.
+ Bocal, sm. a wide-mouthed bottle ; introd.
in i6th cent, from It. boccale.
BCEUF, sm. an ox ; from L. bovem. For
o = (Bu see accueillir ; for v =/ (a rare
change in Lat., though we find parafredus
for paraveredus in the Germanic Laws),
we find it in Fr. (i) for the initial v, as in
vie em, fois ; and (2) for the final v, as in
brevem, bref, see Hist. Gram. p. 59.
BOIRE, va. to drink; from L. bibere.
54
BOIS — BORD.
Bib(6)re, regularly contrd. into bib*re
(see § 51), has undergone two changes:
(i) br into r, as in scrib're, 6crire,
§ 168. (2) Accented 1 becomes ol, in the
case of I, as in fidem, foi, § 68; in the
case of i, as in cervisia, cervoise, § 69,
note 2 ; in the case of i long by position, as
in dig'tus, doigt, § 74. Atonic i becomes
oi, when short, as in ^\ickrQ,ployer, § 68 ;
when long by nature, as in vicinus, voisin
when long by position, as in piscionem,
poisson. — Der. 6oJte (in the expression kre
en boite, speaking of wine; strong partic.
of boire, see absoute), bu (O. Fr. beii, contrd.
from bibiitus, a barbarous form of the
p.p. of bibere). For loss of medial b in
bi(b)utTis see § 1 13 ; for loss of final t
see aigu; for i = e see § 71. This form,
bibuttis for bibitus is not alone ; we find
pendtitus, in the Lex Alaman ; battatus,
in a decree of a.d. 585; reddutus, in
a chartulary of a.d. 796.
BOIS, sm. wood. Prov. bosc. It. bosco, in
oldest Low L. boscum, buscxun, mean-
ing wood. Origin unknown. For u = oz
see § 88; for sc = s, cp. discus, dais. —
Der. boiiCT, debotser, leboisei, boiserie.
BOISSEAU, sm. a bushel. O. Fr. boissel, from
L. bustellus*, dim. of busta, properly a
vessel to measure grain ; see bolie. For st
= ss see Hist. Gram. p. 73, and u = ot see
§ 88; for -ellus =-eatt see § 282.
BOISSON, sf. a beverage, drink; from L.
bibitionem*. For loss of b, bi(b)ition-
em see § 113; for -tionem = -5so» see
§ 132 ; for i = oi see § 68.
BOITE, sf. a box. O. Fr. boiste, which is
successively bossida, boxida, in Lat.
documents : when we reach the 9th cent.
we find the original form btxxida. Bux-
ida is the Gr. irv^iSa. Bilxida, after be-
coming bossida by change of x into s (see
aisselle), and of u into (see § 98), is
regularly contrd. into boss'da. Boss'da
becomes boiste by changing o into oi,
see § 87 ; and d into /, see doni. For
loss of s in boisie, see § 148. Boite is a
doublet of buste, q. v. Boile is also used
for the socket or ' box ' of a joint ; a mean-
ing preserved in such phrases as, se de-
boiter un bras, 'to put one's arm out,'
i.e. of the socket; emboiter un os, ' to
but a bone in'; boiler, to be malformed
at the joints, i. e. to limp. — Der. boitiei.
BOfTER, vn. to limp, halt. See boite. — Der.
6orVeux.
Bol, sm. a bolus, pill ; from Gr. fiw\os.
+ Bol, sm. a bowl ; from Engl. howl.
BOMBANCE, sf. feasting, junketing. Origin
unknown.
BOMB, sf. a bomb. Origin unknown. —
Der. 6ow6arde, 6o»i6arder, 6om6ardement,
bombcT.
BOMBER, va and n. to swell out. See bombe.
BON, adj. good ; from L. bonus. — Der. bon
(sm. a good thing, whence abonnex, lit.
prendre un bon pour quelque chose), bonne
(sf.), 6onasse, 6o«ifier, iowification, bonbon,
bonbonmhie.
+ Bonace, 5/'. a calm smooth sea; introd.
in 1 6th cent, from It. bonaccia.
BOND, sm. a bound. See bondir.
BONDE, sf. a sluice, floodgate ; a word of
Germ, origin, from Swab, bunte. — Der.
bondon, bonder, debonder.
BONDIR, vn. to bound, leap: this sense
however is comparatively modern, and
scarcely appears before the i6th cent. Origi-
nally it meant to resound, re-echo ; in the
Chanson de Roland the elephant of Charle-
magne's nephew bondissait, trumpeted more
loudly than all the others. Bondir comes
from L. bombitare*. For the change of
conjugation see aimant. Bombitare, re-
gularly contrd. into bomb 'tare, changes bt
into d, see accouder; m into n, see § 160.
— Der. bond (verbal subst.), bondissement,
rebondir.
BONHEUR, sm. happiness. See heur.
fBoni, sm. a bonus; a Lat. word, lit. *of
good.'
BONNET, sm. a cap. The original sense is
' stuff.' There were robes de bonnet : the
phrase chapel de bonnet is several times
found ; this was abridged into un bonnet, as
we say un feutre for un chapeau de feutre
(' a beaver ' for ' a hat of beaver '). Origin
unknown. — Der. bonnetier, bonneterie.
BONTE, sf. goodness ; from L. bonitatem.
For the loss of i see § 52 ; and for -tatem
= -te see § 230.
+ Borax, sm. borax; introd. from the East,
with many other chem. terms, from the
Heb. borak, white.
BORD, sm. edge, border, bank, shore ; from
Neth. bord. — Der. border, bordme, ^border,
deborder, bordage, rebord, borderenu, bordee
(a broadside, from their arming the same
side, of the ship). — Another form of border
is broder, by transposing the r, see Hist.
Gram. p. 77. The original sense oi border
is to ornament the edge (bord) of a gar-
ment, etc., with needlework, to make a
border. By way of confirming this etymology
B ORtA L — B UFFON.
55
the Sp. bordar means both ' to edge '
and ' to embroider.' Border is a doublet
of trader, q. v.
Bor6al, adj. boreal, northerly ; from L.
borealis.
BORGNE, adj. one-eyed, blind of one eye.
Origin unknown. — Der. eborgnei.
BORNE, sf. a boundary, landmark. O. Fr.
bontie, in nth cent, bodne, from Merov.
L. bodina, in a 7th-cent. document. The
origin of the word is unknown. B6d(i)na,
contrd. into bod'na, became bodne, which
then became bonne by assimilating dn into
nn, see aller : just as 11 becomes rl by dis-
similation in ul'lare, hurler, so nn {bonne)
becomes rn {borne), § 169. — Der. bornei,
bornzge.
BOSQUET, sm. a thicket, grove; dim. of
boscus (see bois), properly ' a little wood.*
Bosquet is a doublet of bouquet, q. v.
BOSSE, sf. a hump. Origin unknown. — Der.
bossii, bossMtv, bosstl&t, 6ossette.
BOSSE, sf. a hawser. Origin unknown. —
Der. em6os5er.
[ t Bosseman, sm. a boatswain's mate;
I introd. from Germ, bootsmann.
• BOT, sm. a club-foot. Origin unknown.
! BOTANIQUE, adj. botanical ; from Gr.
j ^oraviKT]. — Der. botaniste.
j BOTTE, sf. a truss, bundle (of hay, etc.) ;
from O. H. G. bozo, a fagot. — Der. botteler.
I BOTTE, a butt, leather bottle; of Germ.
I origin, from butte ; botle (boot) is the same
I word. The transition from the 'leather
i bottle ' to ' boot ' is not peculiar to Fr. ; the
I Engl. 600/ is used to signify both foot-gear
(and the luggage-box in a stage coach. — Der.
bottier, bottine.
tBotte, sf. a thrust, lunge (in fence);
from It. botta.
BOTTINE, sf. a half-boot. See botte.
i BOUC, sm. a buck, he-goat. Origin unknown.
I — Der. boiiqu'm, bouquetin, toucher.
JBOUCHE, sf. a mouth; from L. bucca.
For u = ou see § 90; for co = ch see
§ 126. — Der. boucMe, emboucktr, em-
bouchnre, nbouch^t, boucher (properly to
shut the mouth, close up an opening).
Boueaner, va. to ' buccan,' smoke-dry ;
Boucanier, sm. a buccaneer. Origin un-
known.
BOUCHER, va. to block up. See bouche.—
Der. bouchon, bouchonner.
BOUCHER, sm. a butcher, properly one who
kills ' bucks ' (he-goats) ; BOUCHERIE, sf.
the place where goat's flesh is sold ( it was
eaten by the common folk in the middle
ages). One knows the medieval jealousy^
between corporations, and with what rigour
the division of labour was maintained and
protected. As late as the i8th cent, shoe-
makers, who made new shoes, might not
act as cobblers ; and the cobblers seem to
have often sued them at the law for trans-
gressing their limits. Similarly the medieval
bouchers, i. e. the salesmen of goat's flesh,
were not allowed to sell meat of any other
kind : thus we read in the Statuts de la
Ville de Montpellier, a.d. 1204, Ni el
mazel de bocarid ?io sid venduda earn de
feda — ' Merchants in boucherie are for-
bidden to sell lamb.' Here the word bouch-
erie— viande de bouc (its proper sense). As
a full confirmation of this deriv. of boucher
we may note the It. beccaio, which is de-
rived in exactly the same way from becco^
the he-goat.
BOUCHON, sm. a wisp (of straw) ; of Germ.
origin. Germ, busch.
BOUCLE, sf. a buckle; from L. bucula*.
•Bucxila, umbo scuti,' says Isidore of Se-
ville. For loss of the atonic u see § 51 ;
for u = o« see § 90. Boucle in the middle
ages had the double sense of a ' shield's
boss' and 'a ring'; the last sense has
alone survived, and is metaph. developed
in the boucle de cheveux, ringlets. The first
sense has disappeared in the radical, but
remains in the deriv. bouclier, which in very
early Fr. was simply an adj. Before the
13th cent, the phrase ran un ecu bouclier
(as one says un jour ouvrier), i. e. a shield
with a boss {boucle) ; then the epithet
drove out the subst., and from the 14th
cent, onwards the word bouclier is used
alone.
BOUDER, vn. to pout, sulk. Origin un-
known. — Der. boudoir (a word created in
the 13th cent.), 6ottc/me.
BOUDIN, sm. a black-pudding. Origin un-
known.
BOUE, sf. mud, mire. Origin unknown.—
Der. fcoweux.
BOUEE, sf. a buoy, dim. of boue ; originally
boye, a buoy, in O. Fr., from L. boja, a
chain or rope fastened to a piece of floating
wood. For j = i see aider ; for o = ou see
affouage.
BOUFFER, va. to puff, swell ; onomatopoeia,
see § 34. Bouffer is a doublet of bouffir.—-
Der. bouffe.
BOUFFIR, va. to puff up, inflate ; onoma-
topoeia. — Der. bouffissure.
tBouffon, sm. a buffoon; introd, in
86
BOUOE^BOURG^
1 6th cent, from It. huffone. — Der. houffon-
nerie.
BOUGE, sf. a closet, hovel, bulge ; from L.
bvilga, a little bag ; according to Festus, a
word of Gaulish origin, * bulgas Galli sac-
culos scorteos vocant.' From hag it passed
to the sense of * box,' thence metaph. to
that of • a retreat,' room as narrow and
dark as a box. The same metaphor sur-
vives in the vulgar speech of Paris ; whence
we can better understand how this change
came in among the Romans.
BOUGER, vn. to stir, 'budge.' Prov. bolegar,
to disturb oneself; It. bulicare*, to bubble
up; from L. bullicare*, frequent, of
bullire. Each of the three Romance
forms works a fresh step in the change of
sense. Bull(i)c&re, regularly contrd. into
bull'care, becomes bouger by changing
(i) ull into o«, see agneau ; (2) care into
ger, see adjuger.
Bougie, ^f. wax candle; of hist, origin,
§ 33- Wax candles were first made in the
town of Bougie. — ^Der. feoK^eoir.
BOUGON, adj. grumbling. Origin unknown.
BOUILLIR, vn. to boil; from L. bullire.
For u = OM see accouder; for lli = «7/ see
ail. — Der. bouillon, bouillonner ; bouill'i,
bouillie, bouilloixQ.
BOULANGER, sm. a baker. Origin un-
known. — Der. boulanger'it.
BOULE, ./. a ball ; from L. biilla. For u =
ou see accouder. — Der. boulet, boulette,
boulon, botilevtrstr, whose proper meaning
is ' to make one turn like a ball.' ^bouler
is properly ' to roll like a ball as one falls.'
Boule is a doublet of bulle, q. v.
BOULEAU, sm. a birch tree ; dim. of O. Fr.
boule, from L. betula. Betula, regularly
contrd. into bet'la, changes tl into //, then
into /, as in rot'lus, rule; see § 168.
+ Bouledogue, sm. a bull-dog; lately
introd. from Engl, bulldog.
BOULEVARD, sm. a boulevard, bulwark,
rampart. O. Fr. boulevart, boulevert, boule-
vera, introd. early in the 15th cent, from
Germ, bollwerk, a fortification. We know
that originally the word was a term of
military art, meaning the terre-pleins, plat-
forms of the ramparts. The Boulevards of
Paris were, in the time of Louis XIV, simply
the line of fortifications round the city;
this, planted with trees, became a fashion-
able walk, and the word boulevard became
synonymous with a walk or street planted
with trees, a meaning quite foreign to its
etymol. sense.
BOULEVERSER, va. to overthrow. See
boule. — Der. bouleversemenX..
Boulimie, sf. voracity, diseased hunger;
from Gr. PovXtfiia.
fBouline, sf. a bowline; from Engl.
bowline. — Der. boulinex.
tBoulingrin, sm. a bowling-green;
introd. from Engl, boivlifig-green.
BOULON, sm. a bolt, pin. See boule.— Der.
bordonner.
BOUQUET, sm. a bouquet, posy. O. Fr.
bousquet, originally bosquet, properly =/)e/iV
bois : the phrase bouquet d'arbres is still
used. This sense of ' a little wood ' is quite
plain in Mme. de S^vign6's phrase, II a
voulu vendre un petit bouquet qui faisait
un assez grande beaute. The prim, form
bosquet is a dim. of L. boscum* ; see bois.
For o = OM see affouage ; for loss of s see
§ 148. — Der. bouquetihie.
BOUQUIN, sm. an old he -goat. See
bouc.
tBouquin, sm. an old buck; introd.
from Netherl. bceckin. — Der. bouquintx,
bouquiniste.
BOURACAN, sm. a barracan. Origin un-
known.
BOURSE, sf. mire, mud. Origin unknown.
Der. bourbeux, bourbier, embourber.
BOURDE, sf. a falsehood, ' bouncer.' Origin
unknown.
BOURDON, sm. a pilgrim's staff; from L.
burdo, an ass. For vi = ou see accouder.
This metaphor is not peculiar to the Ro-
mance languages : there are many instances
of the analogy between the stick which
supports, and the beast which carries ; the
Sp. muleta means either ' a mule ' or ' a
crutch ' ; It. mula means also ' a stick.' In
the 1 7th cent, the staff" was called ' the
cordelier's hackney,' a phrase answering to
the Sp. el caballo de S. Francisco, St.
Francis's horse, i. e. a stick.
BOURDON, (1) sm. the drone-stop in an
organ. Origin unknown. — Der. bourdon,
an insect whose buzzing is Hke the sound
of the organ's bourdon. (2) sm. a drone.
— Der. bourdonntr, bourdonv.ement.
BOURG, sm. a borough, burgh; from L.
biirgus, which usually means a small for-
tified place, as in Vegetius, ' Castellum par-
vum, quod burgum vocant.' In Isidore
of Seville the word has already got its
modern sense; ' Burgus,' he says, * domo-
rum congregatio, quae muro non clauditur.'
From burgensis (a form to be found in
Merov. documents; and in an iith-cent.
BOURGEOIS — BOUVREUIL.
57
document we find Remenses bvirgen-
ses) we get Fr. bourgeois, a dweller in a
bourg. For ns = s see aine ; for e = oi
see accroire ; for u = ou see accouder. — Der.
bourg^At.
BOURGEOIS, sm. a burger, townsman. See
bourg. — Der. bourgeoisie.
BOURGEON, sm. a 'burgeon,' bud, shoot.
O. Fr. bourgeon, originally burjon; of Germ,
origin. O. H. G. burjan, to lift; properly
that which pushes, lifts, as the first out-
pushing of a sprouting tree. — Der. bour-
geonner.
tBourginestre, sm. a burgomaster;
introd. from Germ, bur germeister.
BOURRACHE, sf. borage. It. borragine,
from L. borraginem. Borraginem
having lost the syllables after the accented
syllable (Hist Gram. p. 34), produces bour-
rache. For o — ou see affouage ; for g = c
(the O. Fr. form was borrace) see fraise ;
for c = ch see § 126.
fBourrasque, sf. a squall; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. burrasca.
i BOURRE, sf. hair, flock; from Low L.
burra* (a heap of wool). For u = om see
accouder. The bourre of a gun is the same
word, the wads being ordinarily made of
wool and hair. From this word comes 6owrrcr,
(to ram the wad, bourre, home), thence to
stuff; hence the deriv. Aibourrer, embourrer,
Tembourrer, bourrade, bourree, bottrra,
■ bourreXex, bourrelet, bourlet.
BOURREAU, sm. an executioner. Origin
unknown.
BOURRELET, sm. a pad, cushion. See
bourre.
BOURRIQUE, sf. a she-ass ; from L. burri-
cus in Isidore of Seville, which means a
wretched little nag, ' mannus quem vulgo
buricum vocant.' For n = ou see accou-
der. — Der. bourriquet.
BOURRU, adj. peevish, crabbed ; one who
crams (bourrer) one with insults. See bourre.
BOURSE, sf. a purse, exchange ; from L.
byrsa, the Gr. ^vpaa. For y = ou see
§ lOi. — Der. boursier ; debourser, debours ;
rem6o7/r5er, -ement, -able.
BOURSOUFLER, va. to puff up, bloat ;
BOURSOUFLE, adj. swollen, bloated, botir-
sesoufle, i.e. soufle, puffed out like a purse.
For etymology see bourse and souffler. In
Wallachia bosunfla is used similarly : the
word means literally to blow up (unfla) Hke
a purse (60s), a parallel which confirms the
metaphor in the Fr. word. — Der. bour-
souflmQ.
BOUSCULER, va. to turn upsidedown. Origin
unknown.
BOUSE, sf. cow-dung. Origin unknown. —
Der. bousiWer.
tBoussole, sf a compass; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. bossolo, properly the
little box in which the needle, etc., are kept.
BOUT, sm. end. See bouter. — Der. dtbout^
tmbouttr, aboudi.
t Boutade, sf. a whim, freak. See bouter.
BOUTE-EN-TRAIN, sm. a breeding-horse.
See bo7iter.
BOUTE-FEU, sm. a linstock. See bouter.
BOUTEILLE, sf. a bottle ; from L. buticula,
found in the Glosses of Reichenau, 8th cent.,
and after that in the well-known Capitulary
de Villis. Buticula is dim. of butica,
which occurs in Papias with the explanation
'vasis genus' : butica is from Gr. /3vTts (a
flask). Buticula becomes bouteille by
changing (i) -icula into -eille, see § 257;
(2) u into ou, see accouder.
BOUTER. va. to put, set, push. O. Fr.
boter, from M. H. G. bi'izen. — Der. bout
(verbal subst., properly that part of a body
which pushes or touches first), 6ow^ure (a
cutting, the piece one puts into the ground),
bouton (that which pushes out, makes
knobs on plants ; thence by analogy, pieces
of wood or metal shaped like buds), boute-
feu (which is used to set fire, bouter feu, to
guns), boute-en-train (that which sets going),
boute-selle (a signal to cavalry to set them-
selves, see bouter, in the saddle), arc-boutant
(an arched buttress, flying buttress, an arch
which pushes back a wall), boutoir (a but-
tress), boutade (an attack, push, introd. in
1 6th cent, from It., as is shown by its ter-
mination -ade). See § 201.
BOUTIQUE, sf. a shop ; corrupted from L.
apotheca. For the analysis of this word see
§ 172, where it has been fully discussed. —
Der. boutiquier. Boutiquier is a doublet of
apothecaire, q. v.
BOUTON, sm. a button. See bouter.— Titr.
boutonner, deboutonner, boutonmhre.
BOUTURE, /. a slip, cutting. See bouter.
BOUVIER, sm. a neatherd, drover ; from L.
bovarius. For -arius = -zer see § 198 ; for
o = ou see affouage. Another deriv. of
bovus is bouvillon.
BOUVREUIL, sm. a bullfinch ; from L. bo-
vSriolus, a little neatherd, dim. of bo-
varius. For the cause of this name see
§ 15, where it is discussed. Bov(a)riolus
is contrd. into bov'riolus, see § 5 2 ; it then
becomes bouvreuil by changing (i) -iolus
5«
BOVINE — BREBIS.
into -euil, see § 353; (2) o into ou, see
affouage.
Bovine, adj. bovine; from L. bovinus.
t Boxer, vn. to box, spar; from Eng. box.
— Der. 6o*eur.
BOYAU, sm. a gut. O. Fr. boyel, originally
boel. It. hudello, from L. botelluB, intes-
tines, sausage, in Martial ; human intestines
in the Barbaric Laws. * Si botellum vul-
neraverit ' occurs in the Lex Frisionum
(5, 52). For the change of meaning see
§ 14. For loss of the t see § 117; for
-ellus = -eau see agneau.
BRACELET, sm. a bracelet ; see hras. Dim.
of bracel, which answers to L. brachile,
which is found in the Germanic Laws :
* Signis mulieri brachile furaverit,' Salic
Law, 29, 37. For i = e see admettre.
BRACONNER, va. to poach. See braque.—
Der. braconnieT.
BRAI, sm. residue of tar. Prov. brae. It. brago,
from Scand. (Nors. 6ra'S, tar).
BRAIE, sf. breeches. Prov. braya. It. braca,
from L. braca, a word which Lat. writers
consider to have been borrowed from Gael.
— Der. brayette, debraiWer, d6brayeT.
BRAILLER, vn. to brawl, bawl ; sec braire.
— Der. brailhrd.
BRAIRE, vn. to bray. Origin unknown. —
Der. 6ra/ment, brailler.
BRAISE, sf. embers. Sp. brasa, Port, braza, a
word of Germ, origin (O. G. bras, fire). —
Der. braistv, brasicr, embrasti.
f Br axner, va. to bell (the stag) ; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. bramare.
BRAN, sm. bran ; a word of Celt, origin (Gael.
bran).
BRANCARD, sm. a litter, handbarrow ; from
branc, masc. form of branche, q. v.
BRANCHE, sf. a branch. Origin unknown.
— Der. ebrancher, embrancher, embranche-
ment, brancard (which properly means a
great bough stripped of its leaves, a great
stick ; then the word is used of the shafts of
a carriage, and of a litter originally formed
of crossed sticks).
BRANCHIES, s/.pl. branchix, gills (of a fish);
from Gr. fipdyxia.
BRANDE, sf. heather. Origin unknown.
BRANDEBOURG, sm. frogs (of a coat) ; a
word of hist, origin (§ 33), introd. in 17th
cent, in sense of a coat adorned with trim-
ming, like those worn in 1674 by the soldiers
of the Elector of Brandenbourg, when they
entered France.
fBrandevin, sm. brandy; from Germ.
branntwein.
BRANDIR, va. to brandish, properly to shake
a brand (sword), then to brandish any
weapon. For such expansions of meaning
see § 1 2. The O. Fr. brand is of Germ,
origin (Scand. brandr).
BRANDON, sm. a wisp of straw, dim. of
O. H. G. brani.
BRANLER, va. to shake. Origin unknown.
— Der. branle (verbal subst.), 6ran/oire,
6raw/ement, dbranhx.
BRAQUE, sm. a brach-hound ; of Germ,
origin (Germ, bracke). The signification, a
fool, hare-brained fellow, is metaph. = stu-
pider than a brack, i.e. than a sporting dog.
— Der. bracon, dim. braque, a little brach :
the servant who looked after them was called
the braconnier {c^. fauconnier ixom faucon).
From this sense braconnier has come by a
natural transition to its present sense : the
servant in charge of the dogs hunted them
on his own account in his master's absence ;
thence it comes to mean a poacher.
BRAQUEMART, sm. a broadsword. Origin
unknown.
BRAQUER, va. to point. Origin unknown.
BRAS, sm. an arm ; from L. brachium.
chi becomes first ci, and then s; see
agencer. Brachia, by the regular change
of chi into ci, and of ci into c (see agencer),
produced O. Fr. brace ; this word again
underwent the change of c into ss (see
amide), and became brasse (the distance
between one's extended arms, a fathom).
— Der. Wrasse, ferassard, embrasser.
BRAISER, sm. a brazier. See braise.
BRASSER, va. to stir up, mix together.
O. Fr. bracer, to make beer, from O. Fr.
brace (malt). O. Fr. brace comes from
L. brace (used by Pliny, who gives the
word a Gaulish origin). Lat. brace had
a deriv. bracivuu (' Bracirun unde cervisia
fit,' says Papias) which has produced the
O. Fr. brace, by changing ci into c, see
agencer ; O. Fr. bracer has changed e into
ss (see ami tie), whence brasser.
+ Brave, adj. brave, sm. a brave man;
introd. in 1 6th cent, from It. bravo. — 'Der.
braver, brava.de, bravache, bravo.
BRAYETTE, sf. flap (of trowsers). See braie.
BREBIS, sf. a sheep. O. Fr. berbis, It. berbice,
from L. berbicem*. For the transposition
of the r see Hist. Gram. p. 77. Berbicem,
a form found as early as Vopiscus, is common
in the Germanic Laws : • Si quis berbicem
furaverit,' Salic Law (t. 4, § 2). Berbi-
cem is another form of berbecem, to be
found in Petronius, ist cent. (For e = ?
I
BRECHE — BR OCHE.
see § 59.) Berbecem, used by Petronius
as a popular Lat. form, answers to the ver-
vecem of the literary language. For v = 6
see § 140.
BRECHE, sf. a gap, break; from O. H. G.
brecha. — Der. ebrecher.
BRECHET, sm. the breast-bone, brisket.
O. Fr. breschet, originally brtschet, a word
of Celtic origin (Kymri brisket, the breast).
BREDOUILLER, vn. to stammer. Origin
unknown.
BREF, adj. short, brief; from L. brevis.
For final v=/see § 142.
BREF, sm. a papal brief; from L. breve
(used for an act, document, by Justinian
I and Jerome;. For final v=/ see § 142 —
Der. brevet (see achever)
jBREHAIGNE, adj. barren, sterile. Origin
j unknown,
! BRELAN, sm. brelan (a game of cards) ; from
j brelenc, of Germ, origin (Germ, bretling,
\ dim. of brett, a board, whence a diceboard).
BRELOQUE, sf. a trinket. Origin unknown.
BREME, sf. a bream. O. Fr. bresme, from
1 Germ, brassen.
BRETAUDER, va. to crop close (hair, etc.).
Origin unknown.
JBRETELLE, sf. a strap, brace. Origin un-
! known.
JBRETTE, sf. a rapier, long sword; of Germ,
origin {Sand, bregma). — Der. brettem.
8REUVAGE, sm. beverage. O. Fr. beuvrage,
Sp. bebrage, It. beveraggio, from L. biber-
aticum* (see Ducange). Biberaticum
is from biberare * (frequent, of bibere).
Bib(e)rdticuin, contrd. into bib'rdticum
(§ 52). produced O. Fr. beuvrage by change
(l) of -aticum into -age (§ 248) ; (2) of
i into e (§ 72); e = eu is uncommon; (3)
of b into V (see § 113). Beuvrage became
breuvage by the transposition of r, discussed
under dprete.
Just as biberaticum has produced first
beuvrage, then breuvage, biberare (a
1 medieval Lat. word) has produced, by means
! of its compd. adbiberare, the O. Fr. abeu-
! vrer, which has become abreuver as beuvrage
t has become breuvage. For the permuta-
! tions see dprele.
iJREVET, sm. brevet, letters-patent. See
I bref{2).
i3r6viaire, sm. a breviary; from L. brevi-
; arium (a manual, and, in particular, in
I eccles. language, a manual of daily prayers).
RIBE, ./. a hunch of bread. Origin un-
known.
Brick, sm. a brig ; from Engl. brig.
59
BR I COLE, sf. a breast-band. Origin un-
known.
BRIDE, /. a bridle ; of Germ, origin (O.H.G.
brit'l, britiil). — Der. brid&x, bndon, de-
brider.
+ Brigade, sf. a brigade; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. brigata (division of an army).
Brigade is a doublet of briguee. — Der.
brigandage.
BRIGUE, §f. an intrigue. Origin unknown.
— ^Der. briguev.
BRILLER, vn. to glitter, shine; from L.
beryllare * (to sparkle like a precious
stone ; from L. beryllus). For loss of e
cp. perustulare, bruler. This loss, other-
wise very rare, is found in other vowels,
as in quiritare, crier; corrosus, creux;
corotulare, crouler: it also occurs in the
second degree in the Fr. forms bluter
(beluter), bluette (belueite), brouette (berou-
ette), etc. — Der. brilUnt, brUhnter.
Briraborion, sm. a bauble, toy. Origin
unknown.
BRIN, sm. a blade (of grass, etc.). Origin
unknown.
BRIOCHE, sf. a cake. Origin unknown.
BRIQUE, sf. a brick ; originally a fragment.
The Bresse patois has the phrase brique de
pain for a piece of bread. Of Germ, origin
(Engl, brick, A. S. brice, a fragment). — Der.
briquetitx, briqueter, briquet.
•\' 'Briae, sfa breeze ; a sea term introd. to-
wards the end of the 1 7th cent, from Engl.
breeze.
BRISER, va. to break ; from O. H. G. bristan.
— Der. bris (verbal subst,), brisee (partic.
subst.), 6mant, 6nseur.
BROC, sm. a jug. Origin unknown.
BROCANTER, va. to deal in second-hand
goods. Origin unknown. — Der. brocantage,
brocanleuT.
t Brocard, sm. a taunt, jeer; word of
hist, origin. In the middle ages, in scholastic
phrase, brocard (Schol. Lat. brocarda)
meant the ' sentences ' of Brocardus, Bishop
of Worms, who compiled twenty books of
' Regulae Ecclesiasticae.'
BROCART, sm. brocade; from brochart,
a stuff brochee with gold. See broche.
BROCHE, sf. a spit; from L. brocca * (a
needle, der. from broccus, used by Plautus
for a point, a sharp tooth). — Der. brocher,
brochette, embrocher, brochure, brochige,
brocket, dim. of broche, a word which in
O. Fr. meant a pike, so called by reason of
its pointed head : this metaphor is not pe*
culiar; Engl, pike is a similar case.
6o
BROCHER — BR ULER.
BROCHER, va. to stitch (a book). See broche.
— Der. brochure.
BROCHET, sm. a pike. See broche.
BRODEQ.UIN, sm. (i) a buskin, sock; (2)
a half-boot. Sp. borcegui. It. borzacchino,
from Flem. brosekin. The It. and Sp.have
kept the Flem. s, while the Fr. has changed
it, very irregularly, into the dental d.
BRODER, va. to embroider. See border, of
which it is a doublet Der. broderie.
Bronches, sf. (Med.) the bronchus; from
Gr. ^p6yxof- — Der. bronckite.
BRONCHER, vn. to stumble. Origin un-
known.
+ Bronze, sm. bronze; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. bronzo. — Der. bronzer.
BROSSE, sf. a brush. This word, now a
piece of wood stuck with bristles, and for-
merly with couch-grass or heather, is an
example of restriction of meaning, see
§ 12. Brosse, Low L. brustia, from
O. H. G. brustia, signified at the beginning
of the Fr. language, heather, broom, and
only slowly was taken to mean a branch
of broom used to sweep away dust. This
original sense of the word ( = broussailles,
brush-wood) remains in some phrases and
usages. Speaking of woodland, brushwood
is still called une brosse ; to beat a thicket
is still called brosser in hunting- speech; cp.
*to brush the covers': so Ronsard says,
// brossa longuement sans trouver nulle
proie ; and Saint-Simon even uses the word
in the general sense of passing or crossing,
Le premier president brossa a trovers la
compaigne et disparut. This verb brosser,
to traverse, cross, exists still in the deriv.
rebrousser, originally rebrosser. Lastly,
hroussaille, in the 16th .cent, brossaille, is
the dim. of brosse, and signifies a little
brosse, a little brush.
BROUET, sm. caudle, broth. The broth
which Le Fontaine's fox serves up for the
stork is brouet. Like It. brodetto, which is
the dim. of It. brodo, brouet is the dim.
in et of O. Fr. brou, which answers to Low
L. brodum and to O. H. G. brod (gravy).
For change of brodum into brou see affou-
age ; for the loss of d see accabler.
BROUETTE, sf. a wheelbarrow; in 12th
cent, berouaite, Walloon berouette. This
word signified as late as the 1 8th cent, a
little two-wheeled truck ; in Louis XIV's
days it was a chaise-a-porteur on two wheels.
In the 1 5th cent, it was a cart of considerable
size, for Andr6 de la Vigne speaks of des
charrettes e/ brouettes yw« estoient a V entree
de Charles VIII a Florence. Brouefte or
rather berouette (the prim, orthography) is a
dim. of beroue * (for dim. in -el(e see ab-
lette). Beroue is from L. birota, a two-
wheeled car. For bi = be see bis ; for
rota = ro»/tf see roue. The O. Fr. berouette
is contrd. into brouette by dropping the e, see
briller ; but in many patois the old form is
still retained and the word is proncd. 6c-
rouette.
BROUILLARD, sm. a fog. See brouiller.
BROUILLER, va. to mingle, embroil. Origin
unknown. — Der. brouille (verbal subst.),
brouillon, debrouiller, embrouiller.
BROUIR, va. to blight. Origin unknown.
BROUSSAILLES, sf. brushwood. See brosse.
BROUT, sm. shoots of young wood. O. Fr.
broust, originally brost, a word of Germ,
origin (A. S. brustian, to burgeon, sprout).
— Der. broutti (to browse, lit. to eat the
brouts, or shoots), ^rowriller.
BROYER, va. to grind, crush ; word of Germ.
origin (Goth, brihan, to break). The Lat.
bricare* which springs from the Germ,
word, produces regularly broyer, just as
plicare produces p/qyer, q. v.
BRU, sf. a daughter-in-law. O. Fr. brut, from
O. H. G. prut, a bride.
+ Brugnon, sm. a nectarine ; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. brugna.
BRUINE, sf. drizzling rain. Origin un-
known.
BRUIRE, vn. to roar. Origin unknown. —
Der. bruit, ebruiter, bruissemeat. The
pres. p. of bruire is bruyant.
BRUIT, sm. a noise. See bruire.
BRULE-POURPOINT, sm. originally a gun
discharged so near as to set fire to the
pourpoint, doublet. See bruler and pour-
point.
BRULER, va. to burn ; formerly brusler. It.
brustolare, from L. pSrustulare*, to bum
entirely. From ustus, partic. of urere
came the verb ustare, whence again the
dim. ustulare (which is to be seen in O. Sp.
uslar for ust'lar). Just as ustus produced
ustulare so perustus produced, with in-
termediate perustare, the form perustu-
lare (which remains almost unchanged in
It. brustolare).
For change of perustulare into brusler,
— perust(u)lare loses its u ; perus'tlare
is contri. into p'rust'lare by losing the
first vowel, see briller ; p becomes b, see
§11; then brustlare, by assimilation of
tl into // and reduction of // into / (§ 168),
becomes bruslar, then O. Fr. brusler, whence
BR UME — B UVEUR.
61
bruler, by loss of s, see § 148. — Der. hrul-
ure, briilot.
Brume, sf. fog, mist; from L. bruma. —
Der. brumeux.
BRUN, adj. brown ; from O. H. G. brdn.—
Der. brune (sf.) ; brunix, 6r««issage, brun-
atre, embrunix, rexnbrumx.
+ Brusque, adj. brusque, sharp, short (in
manner) ; introd. in 1 6th cent, from It.
brusco. — Der. brusqutr, brusqueue.
Brut, adj. raw, unwrought, uncultivated ;
from L. brutus. — Der. 6r«^al, bruUlh^,
brutidiser.
BRUYANT, adj. noisy. See brmre.—Der.
bruyamment for bruyantment ; see abon-
daviment.
BRUYERE, sf. heather. O. Fr. bruiere, from
L. brugaria, used for heather in several
Lat. texts of the early middle ages. The word
comes from Celt., a dim. of Breton briig.
For the passage from brugaria to bruyere,
for loss of g see allier ; for -aria = -lire see
dnier.
BUANDIER, sf. a bleacher. See buee.
Bubon, sm. a tumour (in the groin) ; from
Gr. Pov^cuv.
Buccal, adj. buccal, relating to the mouth ;
from L. buccalis.
BtJCHE, sf. a log of wood. O. Fr. busche,
Prov. busca, from L. bosca*, fem. form
of boscum ; see bois. For -ca = -che see
acharner; for o = m see curee. — Der. buchtr,
bucheron.
Bucolique, adj. bucolic ; from Gr. ^ovko-
\ik6s.
+ Budget, sm.a. budget; introd. at the fall
of the Empire (1814) from Engl, budget.
BUEE, sf. lye. Origm unknown. — Der. 6wan-
dier, Jwanderie.
BUFFET, sm. a cupboard, sideboard, buffet.
Origin unknown.
I BUFFLE, sm. a buffalo ; from L. bufalus,
used by Fortunatus, a secondary form of
bubalus. — Der. buffietin, buffieterie.
BUIS, sm. a box-tree; from L. buxus
For x = s see ajouter; accented u becomes
ui, see § 96. — Der. buison. (For the ex-
tension of sense see § 1 2.)
BUISSON, sm. a bush. See buis.
Bulbe, sm. a bulb ; from L. bulbus.
Bulle,s/. a bubble; from L. bulla. Bulle
is also the little ball of metal appended to
the seal of letters-patent, whence the name
of bull, given to papal letters-patent. Bulle
is a doublet of bill, q. v.
t Bulletin, sm. a bulletin ; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. bulletina.
BURE, sf. drugget, coarse woollen cloth ; from
L. burra*. 'Nobilis horribili jungatur
purpura burrae,' says an epigram attributed
to Eucerias. — Der. fewreau (woollen stuff:
vetu de simple bureau, says Boileau) ; then a
table covered with baize.
BUREAU, sm. a writing table. See bure. —
Der. 6wraliste,6wreawcra tie (from bureau and
cratie ; see aristocratie, dSmocraiie), bureau-
crate.
BURETTE, sf. a cruet ; dim. of O. Fr. bure
(a bottle). Origin unknown.
+ Bur grave, sm. a burgrave ; introd. from
Germ, burggraf.
+ Burin, sm. a graver; introd. (see § 25)
from It. borino.
+ Burlesque, adj. burlesque, ludicrous;
introd. in 1 6th cent, from It. burlesco.
+ Burnous, sm. a burnous, cloak; introd.
by travellers from Africa. Ar. bornos.
+ Busc, sm. a busk, bust (for stays) ; also
written busque and buste in i6th cent., a
corruption of It. busto. See buste.
BUSE, sf. a buzzard ; from L. buteo, a
sparrowhawk in Pliny. For change of -teo
into -se, through -tio, see agencer. — Der.
6«sard.
+ Buste, sm. a bust ; introd. in 1 6th cent,
from It. busto. Buste is a doublet of boite,
q. v.
BUT, sm. aim, mark. See buter.
BUTER, va. to strike, in O. Fr. ; but in
mod. Fr. restricted to certain special mean-
ings. Etymologically buter is a dialectial
variant of bouter, q. v. — Der. but (verbal
subst. ; properly the point one aims at, where
one wishes to end), bouter, lebuter, rebut,
debut, debuter.
BUTIN, sm. booty ; of Germ, origin, M. H.G.
bitten. — Der. butinex.
BUTOR, sm. a bittern. Origin unknown.
The stupidity of this bird is proverbial, and
butor is metaph. used for a stupid fellow
just as buse (a bird of prey which cannot
be tamed for hawking, q. v.) is used.
BUTTE, sf. a butt, rising ground, knoll.
O. Fr. bute, fem. 'form of but, q. v. These
two words had the same primitive meaning,
as is seen 'mXh.tT^h.xzsGetreenbuttea = servir
de but a. The but being usually placed
on a rising knoll, the word presently came to
be used for the knoll itself; and then the
original meaning perished.
BUVEUR, sm. a drinker. O. Fr. beuveur,
older still beveur, originally beveor, from L.
bibitorem (in Isidore of Seville). Bibi-
(t)orem produced beveor by loss of medial
6a
BVSSUS — CACHER.
t, see § 1 1 7 ; and the two atonic i's became
e, see mettre. Beveor became beveur by
changing eo into eu, see ateul ; then beu-
veur by changing the first vowel e into eu ;
and finally buveur by change of eu into u,
see jumeau. The Sp. bevedor, It. bevitore,
confirm this derivation. By a transforma-
tion like the above, bibentem becomes
buvant (for the changes see above), whence
buvahle, buvette, etc.
BysBUS, sm. byssus, a kind of fine linen;
from L. byssus.
^A, adv, here; from L. ecc'ao * (compd. of
ecce-hac, like ecciste, eccille, for ecce-
iste, ecce-ille). For loss of the h see
atelier. Eooe means • here,' in several 7th
and 8th cent, documents, e.g. 'Parentes
, ecce habeo multos,' * I have here many re-
lations.' The phrase ecce-hac is therefore
pleonastic. For ecc'ac = fa see ce.
+ Cabale, sf. cabala, cabal; a word of
Heb. origin, meaning properly the Jewish
traditional interpretation of the O. Test.,
from Heb. habala, traditional teaching.
This word in the middle ages signified (i)
a secret interpretation, (2) a mysterious
science of commerce with supernatural
beings. It has produced the adj. caba-
listique. From the sense of occult measures,
secret efforts to attain one's end, comes the
modern signification of cabal, whence the
verb cabaler. Cabale is a doublet of
frabelle, q. v.
•f-Caban, sm. a hooded cloak; introd. in
1 6th cent, from Sp. gahan.
CABANE, sf. a cabin; from L. capanna (in
Isidore of Seville : ' Tugurium parva casa
est; hoc rustici capanna vocant.* The
form cabanna is to be seen in the 8th
cent, in the Glosses of Reichenau). For
p = 6 see dbeille. Cabane is a doublet of
cabine, q. v. — Der. cabanon.
CABARET, sm. a public-house, tavern. Ori-
gin unknown. — Dfer. cabaretitr.
CABAS, sm. a frail, basket of rushes. Origin
unknown.
+ Cabestan, sm. a capstan ; in 17th cent.
capestan, introd. from Eng. capstan.
+ Cabine, sf. a cabin; introd. from Eng.
cabin. Cabine is a doublet of cabane, q. v.
+ Cabinet, sm. a cabinet; introd. in l6th
^cent. from It. gabinetto.
CABLE, sm. a cable ; from L. caplum (found
in sense of a cord in Isidore of Seville beside
the form capuliun). For p = 6 see § ill.
CABOCHE, sf. head, pate, noddle ; dim. of L.
caput by suffix oceus = oche, which is to be
seen in Spinoche, pinoche, etc. For p = 6
(caput is cabo in the Salic Law) see
§ III.
+ Cabot er, vn. to coast. Cabotage,
sm. coasting ; introd. from It. cabotaggio.
— Der. cabotcax, cabot'm (a strolling come-
dian, who goes from village to village, just
as the coasters go from port to port).
Cabotin, sm. a strolling player. See' ea-
boter.
t Cabrer, vpr. to rear, prance, like a goat
on its hind legs; introd. in l6th cent, from
Sp. cabra.
t Cabri, sm. a kid. O. Fr. cabrit, from
Prov. cabrit, which from L. capritum * (a
goat in the Germanic Laws), from capra.
+ Cabriole, sf. a caper ; in Montaigne ca-
priole; introd. in i6th cent, from It. capriola
(properly the leap of a kid). Cabriole is a
doublet of chevreuil, q. v. — Der. cabrioler,
cabriolet (a two-wheeled carriage which
leaps ; from its lightness).
Cabriolet, sm. a cabriolet, cab. See ca-
briole.
CABUS, sm. cabbage, cauliflower ; der. in-
directly from L. caput (properly = a cabbage
without a head). For p = i see § 1 1 1 . For
chou-cabus the Germ, is kopfkohl (lit. head-
cabbage). It. capuccio (lit. little head), forms
which show what the origin of the word is.
t Cacao, sm. cacao, cocoa ; introd. at end
of 1 6th cent, from America. — Der. cacao-
tier.
•\ Cachalot, sm. the sperm-whale; introd.
from Engl, cachalot.
+ Cachemire, sm. cashmere, a kind of
stuff originally worn in Cashmere.
CACHER, va. to hide, conceal ; from L.
coactare, to be pressed together, whence
by extension comes se cacher, i.e. to crouch
down, to hide oneself. Cacher was used
in Fr. in the active sense of ' to press under
foot,* in the line of Ronsard, A pieds
CACHET— CAGOT.
«3
desckaux cache le vin noveau, ' Barefoot he
presses out the grape,' which proves the
origin of the word without doubt. Similarly
It. quatto signifies both concealed and com-
pressed.
Coactare produces cacher (l) by chang-
ing ct into ch, see Hist. Gram. p. 60 ; (2)
by suppressing the o before a (cp. c o a g 1 a r e ,
d. Fr. coailler, cailler). — Der. cache (verbal
subst.), cncAette, cachtX (rightly that which
serves to hide the contents of a letter),
cacAotter (whence cachot, verbal subst.),
cflcAotterie.
CACHET, sm. a seal, stamp. See cacher. —
Der. cacheter, decacheier.
CACHOT, sm. a dungeon. This word, ori-
ginally meaning ( = cachette) a hiding-place
(Ambroise Pare speaks' of cachots des betes
sauvages), is the verbal subst. of cachotter.
See cacher.
Cacochyme, adj. ' cacochymic,' peevish ;
from Gr. Kanoxv/xos.
Cacographie, s/.'cacography,' bad-spelling;
from Gr. KaKoypacpia.
Cacologie, sf. ' cacology,' bad choice of
words ; from Gr. KaKoKoyia.
Cacophonie, sf. 'cacophony,' jarring
sounds ; from' Gr. KaKO<pcovia.
Cactus, sm. a cactus ; from Gr. kAktos.
CADASTRE, sm. a 'cadastre,' official report
on real property. O. Fr. capdastre, It.
catastro, from L. capitastrum* (a register
serving to regulate incidence of taxation),
der. from caput, which in Class. Lat. is
used for the capital-sum of a contribution.
The Sp. similarly has cabezon for cabeza
(the head).
Cap(i)tdstrum loses its i according to
rule, see § 52 ; and becomes cadastre by
changing pt into d, as in male-aptus,
malade ; captellum *, ca^/e/.
Cadavre, sm. a corpse; from L. cadaver.
— Der, cadaveri(\vie, cadavereux.
CADEAU, sm. a gift, present; properly the
feather-flourishes with which writing-masters
adorn their specimens of skill : in this sense
it is found in 1 6th cent., then it came to
mean trifles, agreeable pastimes of no value.
Faire des cadeaux was used for ' to amuse
oneself with trifles ' ; then cadeau was used
for amusement, entertainment, fete: thus
Moli<-re, in the Mariage force, has J'aimeles
visifes, les cadeaux, les promenades, en un
. mot toutes les choses de plaisir. The word
is especially used of entertainments given to
women ; in the I yth cent, the phrase don-
ner auxfemmes k« cadeau off musique etde
dance was used. From this phrase donner
un cadeau comes the modern sense of a
present. The word is a good example of
the way in which words drift away from
their original sense. In its signification
of the feather-flourishes of the writing-
master, a sort of calligraphic ' chain,* ca-
deau, O. Fr. (i2th cent.), cadel (in Gerard
de Roussillon) comes, through the Prov.,
from L. catellus (a little catena, chain).
tCadenas, sm. a padlock, in Rabelais
catenas. Introd. in 16th cent, from It.
catenaccio Der. cadenasser.
+ Cadence, sf. a cadence, measure ; introd.
in 16th cent, from It. cadenza. Cadence is
a doublet of chance, q. v Der. cadenctx.
+ Caddne, sf. a chain ; from Prov. cadena,
which from L. catena. Cadene is a
doublet of chaine, q. v.
Cadenette, sf. plaited hair (as worn by
men) ; a word of hist, origin (see § 33) ;
a kind of coiffure brought into fashion in
the time of Louis XIII by Honor^ d'Albret,
brother of the Duke de Luynes, the Lord of
Cadanet.
\ Cadet, adj. younger ; from Prov. capdef,
which from L. cap'tettum *, capitet-
ttim, dim. of caput, head ; the eldest son
being regarded as the first head of the
family, the second son the cadet, or little
head.
Cadran, sm. a dial-plate, clock-face. O. Fr.
quadrant, from L. quadrantem (a sundial,
surface on which the hours are traced).
t Cadre, sm. a frame; introd. in l6th
cent, from It. quadra. — Der. cadrer, en-
cadrtT.
Caduc, adj. decrepit, decayed; from L.
caducus. — Der. caducite.
Caduc6e, sm. a caduceus, herald's staff :
from L. caduceum.
Cafard, sm. a hypocrite. Origin unknown.
+ Caf6, sm. coffee ; introd. from the East by
travellers at beginning of 17th cent.; it is
the Turkish kahveh, — Der. ca/ier, ca/etier,
ca/etiere.
CAGE, sf. a cage ; from L. cavea. For
-ea, = -ge see § 243 ; for loss of v see § 141.
Cage is a doublet of gabie, q.v. — Der,
cfl/oler (for cageoler), which in O.Fr. bore
sense of to sing like a caged bird, but by
a natural transition has come to mean to
seduce by flattering words.
tCagneux, adj. knock-kneed (like a
beagle), dim. of cagne, from It. cagna, a
bitch.
Cagot, sm. a bigot. Origin unknown.
64
CAHIER — C A LICE,
CAHIER. sm. a writing-book, copy-book.
O. Fr. cayer, originally quayer, from L. qua-
temum* (a book of four leaves, then a
writing-book). For loss of medial t,
qua(t)em\im, see § 117; for rn = r see
aubour; for qua = ca see car; for the in-
tercalation of an h see Hist. Gram. p. 79.
The It. quaderno. Cat. cuern, both confirm
this derivation. Cahier is a doublet of
caserne, and quaterne, q. v.
Cahin-caha, adj. so-so, indifferently ; from
L. qua hinc, — qua hac (hither-thither).
CAHOTER, va. to jolt. Origin unknown. —
Der. cahot (verbal subst.).
tCahute, sf. a hut; prop, ship's cabin:
sailors say cajute. From Du. kajuit.
CAIEU, sm. a clove. Origin unknown.
CAILLE, sf. a quail. O.Fr. quaille. It. quaglia,
from medieval Lat. Quaquila, regularly
contrd. (§51) into quaq'la, becomes caille,
(l) by changing qtia into ca, see car; (2)
cl into iU see abeille. The form quaquila
is of Germ, origin, answering to O. Neth.
quakele.
CAILLER, va. to curdle. O. Fr. coailler, from
L. coagiilare. Coag(u)lare, contrd, re-
gularly (§52) into coag'lare, produced the
O. Fr. coailler by changing gl into il, as
in vigl'are, veiller; see Hist. Gram. p. 71.
For loss of o see cacher. Cailler is a
doublet of coaguler, q. v. — Der. caillot.
CAILLOU, sm. a flint, pebble. Origin un-
known Der. cailloutSLge.
f Caiman, sm. cayman, alligator ; introd.
from American colonies through the Sp.
cayman.
+ Caisse, sf. a case, chest, box; from L.
capsa, through Prov; caissa. For a. = ai
see aigle. ps becomes ss by assimilation ;
a phenomenon visible in Lat.: we find issa
scrisi, for ipsa scripsi, in an 8th-cent.
document ; and this change of ps into ss
was accomplished ages before in popular
Lat., for Suetonius tells us that the Emperor
Claudius punished a senator for saying isse
instead of ipse, pt is similarly assimi-
lated, as in recepta, recette, see § 168;
and pm becomes m, as in sept i man a,
setnaine. Caisse is a doublet of casse, chasse,
q. v.
CAJOLER, va. to cajole. See cage. — Der.
cajolerie.
Cal, sm. a callosity ; from L. callus.
Calamity, sf. a calamity; from L. calami-
tatem.
Calandre, sf. (Ornith.) • calandra,' a kind
of lark ; from Gr. Kapadpios, through L.
caradrion, used in the Vulgate. For r = /
see autel and § 154; for intercalation of
an n see concombre.
CALANDRE, sf. a calender, mangle ; from
L. oylindrus. For y = a see balance ; for
in = a« see § 72, note 4. Calandre is a
doublet of cylindre, q. v.
Calcaire, adj, calcareous, chalky ; from L.
calcarius.
Calciner, va.to calcine ; from L.calcinare*,
which from calcem.
Calcul, sm. a reckoning; from L. calculus
(properly a pebble, used to count with). —
Der. calculex, ca/cw/ateur, inca/cw/able, cal-
culeux.
+ Cale, sf. stocks (in a ship); from It.
cala.
+ Cale, sf. a wedge, to support, steady
(caler) anything ; from Germ. keil.
+ Calebasse, sf. a calabash; introd. in
l6th cent, from Sp. calabaza.
tCaleche, sf a barouche; introd. from
Sclav, languages (Polish holasha, holassa)
through Germ, kalesche.
't'Cale^On, sm. drawers; introd. in l6th
cent, from It. calzone. Calepon is a double?
of chausson, q. v.
Calembour, sm. a pun. Origin unknown.
Calendes, sf. pi. the calends; from L. ca-
lendae.
CALENDRIER, sm. a calendar. O. Fr. calen-
dier, from L. calendarium. For -arium
= -ier see §198; for insertion of r see
chanvre.
Calepin, sm. a Latin dictionary, note-book,
a word of hist, origin, see § 33. This
word, which now only signifies a little agenda
book, meant in the 1 7th cent, a vast collec-
tion of notes, as we see in Boileau : Qui de
ses revenus ecrils par alphabet Pent fournir
aisement un calepin complet. Originally
the word signified a huge dictionary in six
languages, very famous in early 1 6th cent.,
by Ambrosius Calepinus, an Augustin monk,
who died a.d. 151 1.
CALER, va. to wedge up, steady. See cale.
t Calfater, va. to caulk; in Rabelais ca- j
lafter; introd in i6th cent, from It. cala-
fatare. — Der. calf at (verbal subst). After ]
the 1 6th cent, calfater was corrupted into |
calfeutrer {calfeutrer un navire is not rare in j
i6th-cent. authors).
Calfeutrer, va. to caulk. See calfater.
+ Calibre, sm. calibre; introd. in l6thcent.
from It. calibro.
CALICE, sf. (i) Bot. a calix; (2) a chalice,
cup ; from L. calicem.
CALICOT— CANAPE.
65
Calicot, sm. calico; a word of hist, origin
(see § 33), from the city of Calicut, the seat
of this manufacture.
t Calife, SOT. a khalif ; from Ar. Khalifa,
the successor of the Prophet (§ 30).
CALIFOURCHON, adv. a-straddle, a-stride.
Origin unknown.
CALIN, sm. a cajoler, wheedler. Origin un-
known. — Der. cdlifier, calinene.
Calleux, adj. callous; from L. callosus.
For -osus = -«/«! see § 229. Calleux is a
doublet o{ galeux. — Der. callosite.
Calligraphe, sm. a calligraphist ; from Gr.
k6.\\os and ypdcpdv. — Der. calligraphie.
"f-Calme, sot. tranquillity, quiet; from It.
calma. — Der. calmer, which is a doublet of
chfJmer, q. v.
Calomnie, sf. calumny; from L. calum-
nia. Calomnie is a doublet of chalenge,
q. V. — Der. calomnicLteur, calomiiier.
Calorif^re, sm. a stove ; a word made up
of L. calor and fero.
CALOTTE, sf. a skullcap. Origin unknown.
fCalquer, va. to trace, draw on tracing
paper; introd. in i6th cent., with many
other terms of art, from It. calcare.
Calquer is a doublet of cocher, q. v. — Der.
calqiie (verbal subst.), decalquer.
Calvitie, s/. baldness; from L. calvities.
CAMAIEU, SOT. a cameo. See camee.
•f Cam ail, S7n. camail ; originally a coat of
mail, covering the head and shoulders; now
a clerical vestment covering head and
shoulders, down to the waist: introd. in
middle age from Prov. capmail, from L.
caput and macula, properly therefore
mail-armour for the head. For etymology of
maille, see that word.
fCaraarade, SOT. a comrade; introd. in
1 6th cent, from Sp. camarada, properly
one who shares the same chamber (camera),
originally a military term. Camarade is a
doublet of chambree, q. v. — Der. camarad-
erie.
CAMARD, adj. flat-nosed. Origin unknown.
See camns.
+ Cambouis, sm. cartgrease. O. Fr. cam-
bois, from Prov. camois, dirt. Origin un-
known.
CAMBRER, va. to arch, bend, vault ; from
L. camerare. For loss of e see §52;
for ra.'v = mbr see absoudre. Cambrer
is a doublet of chambrer, q. v. — Der. cam-
brure.
f Cambuse, sf. steward's room, cook's
room (on board ship) ; introd. from Engl.
caboose.
+ Carafe, sf. a cameo; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. cameo. — Der. caOTaieu.
Cam^leon, sm. a chameleon; from Gr.
Cainelot, sm. camlet ; originally stuff made
of camel's hair. The word, in medieval
Lat. documents written camelotum, is a
deriv. of L. camelus.
t Cani6rier, SOT, a chamberlain ; introd.
from It. cameriere. Camerier is a doublet
of chambrier, q. v.
fCam^riste, sf. a waiting-woman; in-
trod. from It. camerista.
Camion, sot. a dray. Origin unknown,
+ Cam.isole, sf. a short night-dress, morn-
ing jacket ; introd. in i6th cent, from It.
camiciuola.
tCam.om.ille, sf. camomile; introd. in
16th cent, from It. camomilla.
Cam.ouflet, sm. a puff of smoke in a sleeper's
face, an aflfiront. Origin unknown,
Cam^p, SOT. a camp; from L. campus, pro-
perly field of battle, hence the place where
an army encamps before a battle). Camp
is a doublet of champ, q, v, — Der. camp-
er, Aecamper.
CAMPAGNE, sf. country, champaign, plain-
land ; from L. campania, found in sense of
a plain in the Roman surveyors. For -ania
= -agne see moniagne and § 244. — The
O. Fr. form was champagne, which belongs
primarily to the Picard dialect (see Hist.
Gram. p. 21), and came late into Fr. Cam-
pagne is a doublet of champagne, q.v. — Der.
ca7npagn!ird.
f Cam.panile, sot, a campanile; introd,
from It. campanile.
t Cam,parLule, sf. a campanula; introd.
in 1 6th cent, from It, campanula.
Cam.pech.e, sot. logwood ; a word of hist,
origin (see § 33), meaning wood from the
forests which line Campeachy bay.
CAMPER, va. to encamp. See camp. — Der.
campement.
Cam.ph.re, sm. camphor; from L. c am-
phora*, which is of Ar. origin (^a/ar). F'or
loss of o see ancre and § 51,
CAMUS, adj. flat-nosed. Origin unknown.
t Canaille, sf. mob. rabble; introd, in
1 6th cent, from It. canaglia. Canaille is a
doublet oi chienaille and §51.
Canal, sot. a pipe; from L. canalis. Canal
is a doublet of chenal, q. v. — Der. canal-
iser.
+ Canape, sm. a sofa; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. canape. Rabelais has cono-
pee.
66
CANARD — CAPITAL,
CANARD, sm. a drake. See cane. — Der.
canarder.
Canari, sm. a canary-bird. O. Fr. canaries,
a word of hist, origin (§ 33), a bird
brought from the Canaries.
CANCAN, sm. gossip, tittle-tattle. An ono-
matopoeia (§ 34). — Der. caticantr.
Cancer, sm. a cancer; from L. cancer.
Cancer is a doublet of chancre, q. v. — Der.
cancertux.
CANCRE, sm. a crab, rightly crahe ; from L.
canc6rem. For loss of e see § 51. This
word belongs properly to the Picard dialect
(see Hist. Gram, p. 21), and has come late
into the Fr. language.
Candelabra, sm. a candelabrum ; from L.
candelabrum.
Candeur, &f. candour, openness; from L.
candorem.
+ Candi, adj. candied; introd. in 1 6th
cent, from It. candi.
Candidal, sm. a candidate; from L. can-
didatus. — Der. candidature.
Candide,ac?7. candid, fair; fromL.candidus.
CANE, sf. SL duck. In O. Fr. a boat.— Der.
canard. This word took its present sense
late ; the transition of ideas being that of a
bird floating on the water like a boat.
Cane is from Germ. kahn. — Der. canard,
caneton, in sense of 'a boat.' Cane has
left the dim. canot.
Can§phore, sf. a basket-bearer ; from Gr.
Kavq<p6pos.
+ Canette, s/. a beer-jug; dim. of cane,
which is the Germ, kanne, a can. — Der.
canon, the ^ of a litre,
■f Cane V as, sm. canvas; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. canavaccio, properly a large
piece of stuff for embroidery.
Caniche, sm. a poodle; deriv. of L. canis.
Canicule, sf. the dog-star; from L. cani-
cula.
CAN IF, sm. a penknife. Of Germ, origin,
from A, S. cnif.
Canine, adj. canine; from L. canina.
CANIVEAU, sm. a sewer, drain. Origin un-
known.
CANNE, sf, a cane; from L. canna. — Der.
cannelle, cannele, cannelure, canon. Before
meaning a piece of artillery it signified the
gun-barrel, and earlier still the stock of the
arbaHst.
CANON, sm. a cannon. See canne. — Der.
canonner, -nade, -nier, -niere.
Canon, sm. a rule, decree; from L. canon.
— Der. canonique (of which chanoine, q. v.,
is a doublet), canoniser.
Canonicat, sm. a canonry; from L. can-
onicatus*, the benefice of a canonicus,
or canon.
Canoniser, va. to canonise. See canon.
— Der. canon/sation.
CANOT, sm. a canoe. See cane.
t Cantaloup, sm. (Bot.) a cantalupe ; a
word of hist, origin, the etymology of which
is given § 33,
fCantfete, sf. a cantata; introd. from It.
cantata. Cantate is a doublet of chantte,
q.v.
t Can tat rice, sf. a female singer; introd.
from It. cantatrice. *
Cantharide, s/". cantharis; from L. can-
tharidem.
Cantildne, sf. (Mus.) a cantilene, melody ;
from L. cantilena.
+ Cantine, sf. a canteen; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. cantina. Cantine is a doublet
of quintaine, q. v. — Der. cantimhxe.
Cantique, sm. a canticle, hymn ; from L.
canticum.
CANTON, sm. a canton. Origin unknown.
— Der. can/onal, -ner, -nement, -nier.
t Cantonade, sf. interior of the slips (in
a theatre) ; from It. cantonata.
Canule, sf. (Med.) a clyster-pipe ; from L.
cannula.
+ Caoutchouc, sm. caoutchouc, india-
rubber. A word of American origin, cahtit-
chu.
fCap, sm. a cape; introd. in 1 6th cent.
from It. capo. The It. also signifies ' a
head,' whence the phrase cap-d-pie, i. e.
from head to foot. Cap is a doublet of
chef, q. V.
Capable, adj. capable; from L. capa-
bilis. For -abilis — -aWc see o^fc/c.
Capacity, sf. capacity; from L, capaci-
tatem.
+ Capara90n, sm. caparison; introd. in
1 6th cent, from Sp. caparayon.
CAPE, sf. a cape, hooded cloak ; from L.
cappa, found in Isidore of Seville. For
pp —p see chape. — Der. ca^eline, capoiit.
CAPELINE, sf. a kind of hood. See cape.
Capillaire, adj. capillary; from L. capil-
laris.
t Capilotade, sf. a hash. In i6th cent.
cabirotade, from Sp. cabirotada.
Capitaine, sm. a captain ; introd. about
the 14th cent, from capitaneus, a form
der. by the medieval Lat. from L. caput.
Capitaine is a doublet of capitan.
Capital, adj. capital, chief; sm. capital,
principal; from L. capitalis. Capital is
CAPITAN — CAREME.
■67
a doublet of cheptal, q. v. — Der. capitaliser,
-iste.
+ Capitan, sm. a hector, bully; introd. in
1 6th cent, from Sp. capitan.
t Capiteux, adj. heady (of wine, &c.) ;
introd. in i6th cent, from It. capitoso.
+ Capiton, sm. cappadine, silk flock;
introd. from It. capitone. — Der. capkonner.
Capituler, va. to capitulate; from L.
capitulare*, i. e. to fix the conditions or
heads of a surrender. Capituler is a doublet
of chapitrer. — Der. capituhtion, -aire.
+ Capon, sm. a hypocrite, sneak; from
It. cappoiie. Capon is a doublet of chapon.
— Der. caponner.
"t Caporal, sm. a corporal; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. caporale.
CAPOTE, sf. a great coat, large cape. See
cape.
CAPRE, sf. (Bot.) a caper ; from L. capparis.
For loss of a see § 51.
+ Caprice, sm. a whim, freak ; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. capriccio. — Der. capric-
ieux.
Capricorne, sm. Capricorn ; from L.
capricornus.
Capsule, sf. a capsule, pod; from L. cap-
sula.
Capter, va. to captivate ; from L. captare.
— Der. captation, -ateur.
Captif, adj. a captive; from L. captivus.
Captif is a doublet of chetif q. v. — Der.
captiv'ite, -er.
Capture, sf. capture; from L. captura. —
Der. capturer.
tCapuce, sm. a hood; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. capuccio. — Der. capucin,
capuc'me (a hood-shaped flower),
tCaquer, va. to cure, barrel (fish, &c.).
O. Fr. quaquer, from Dutch kaaken. — Der.
caque, tncaquer.
CAQUETER, va. to cackle, cluck; an onoma-
topoetic word (§ 34). — Der. caquet (verbal
subst.).
CAR, conj. for, because ; from L. quare.
In O. Fr. car kept its etymol. sense ; in the
13th cent, men said Je ne sais ni car, ni
comment, where now they would say Je ne
sais ni p o u r q u o i , «f comment. The change,
qu = c, is to be seen in many inscriptions
under the Empire: cotidie, condam,alico,
etc., for quotidie, quondam, aliquo. qu
becomes hard c in quare, car; quas-
, sare, casser; quomodo, comme, etc.
qu becomes soft c in quinque, cinq;
quinquaginta, cinquante; querquedula,
cercelle. qu becomes ch in quercinus,
chene; quisque-unus, cTiacun. qu be-
comes s in coquina, cuisine. Certain
Roman inscriptions of the 3rd cent, give
us cocere, cinque, for coquere, quin-
que.
+ Carabine, sf. a rifle, carbine; introd.
in 1 6th cent, from It. carahina. — Der.
carabin a 'sawbones,' medical student
(which in the i6th cent, signified a skir-
misher armed with a carbine ; thence it
came to be used for surgeons' appren-
tices, and originally for those of apothe-
caries, by way of a nickname, carabin a
genoux; and thence the present significa-
tion of the word), carabinier.
+ Caracole, sf. a caracole, gambol ; introd.
in 16th cent, from Sp. caracal. — Der. cara-
coller.
CaractSre, sm. character; from L. cha-
racter. — Der. caracteriser, -istique.
t Carafe, s/. a decanter; introd. in l6th
cent, from It. caraffa. — Der. carafon.
Caramboler, vn. to make a cannon (in
billiards). Origin unknown. — Der. caram-
bohge.
t Caramel, sm. burnt sugar; introd. from
Sp. caramello.
t Carapace, s/". carapace (of a tortoise) ;
introd. from Sp. carapacho.
+ Carat, sm. carat; introd., with many
other jewellers' terms, from It. carato.
f Caravane, sf. a caravan; introd. from
the East by travellers. Ar. hairavan. — Der.
caravam^XdW (properly = matsow des cara-
vanes), Pers. karvan-sarat.
t Caravelle, sf a caravel (ship); introd.
from It. caravella.
Carbone, sm. carbon; from L. carbonem.
Carbojie is a doublet of charbon, q. v. — Der.
ca^5owiser, -ique, -ate.
tCarbonade, sf fried or boiled pork;
from It. carbonata. Carbonade is a doublet
o( charbonnee.
CARCAN, sm. an iron collar, pillory. O. Fr.
quercant, from O. H. G. querca, the throat.
t Care ass e, sf a carcass ; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. carcassa.
Carde, sf a chard, teasel-frame; from L.
carduus. — Der. car don, carder (to comb
with cardes, i. e. with brushes of iron,
formed like the teasel), cardtw.
Cardinal, adj. cardinal; from L. cardina-
lis, that on which all hinges. — Der. car-
dinal, sm.
CAREME, sm. Lent. O. Fr. quaresme, origin-
ally ywaraesme; lt.quaresima; fromL.quad-
ragesima. Q,uadrages(i)ma having
F a
68
CA RkNE—CA R VILA GE.
lost its 1 (see § 51), becomes quadra-
ges'ma, thence cart'me: (i) by loss of
medial g, whence O. Fr. quaraesme, see Hist.
Gram. p. 82 ; (2) by change of dr into r,
see § 168 ; (3) by change of qua into ca,
see car ; (4) by loss of s, see Hist. Gram.
p. 81. Careme is a doublet oi quadragesime.
Cardne, sf. a keel. In 16th cent, carine,
from L. carina.
tCaresse, sf. a caress; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. carezza. — Der. caresser.
tCarguer, va. to braii, clew up (sails);
from Prov. cargar, which from L. carri-
oare. Carguer is a doublet of charger, q. v.
— Der. cargue (verbal subst.), carg-aison.
Cariatide, sf. a caryatide; from Gr.
KapvdriSfs.
+ Caricature, sf. a caricature; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. caricatura. — Der. cari-
caturiste.
Carie, sf. decay; from L. caries. — Der.
carier.
CARILLON, sm. chimes ; from L. quadri-
lionem, properly the chiming of four bells.
For qua = <;a see car; for dr = r see § 168 ;
for 11 = 11 see Hist. Gram. p. 57. — Der.
can7/o«ner.
Carlin, sm. a pug dog. Origin unknown.
t Carmagnole, sf. carmagnole, a sort of
revolutionary dance ; a word of hist, origin
(see § 33), from the town of Carmagnole
in Piedmont.
CARNAGE, sm. carnage, slaughter ; from L.
carnaticum *, der. from L. caruem.
For -aticum = -a^e see § 248.
+ Carnassier, adj. carnivorous; a word
introd. from Prov. carnaza, whence also
camassiere, a game-bag. The Prov. carnaza
is from L. carnacea *, deriv. from carnem.
Carnation, sf. carnation (colour) ; from L.
carnationem.
+ Carnaval, sm. carnival ; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. carnovale. — Der. carnaval-
esque.
CARNET, sm^ a note-book ; from L. quater-
netum, dim. of quaternum, q. v.
Q,ua(t)eriietum ; loses its medial t (see
abbaye and § 117) and changes qua into
ca (see car).
Carnivore, adj. carnivorous; from L. car-
nivorus.
Carotide, adj. carotid (artery) ; from Gr.
Kapcarides.
Carotte, sf. a carrot ; from L. carota (used
by Apicius).
"tCaroube, sm. the caroub, locust-tree;
introd. from It. carruba. — Der. caroubicx.
CARPE, sf. a carp ; from L. carpa, in Cassio-
dorus, lib. xii. ep. 4 : ' Destinet carpam
Danubius.' — Der. carpillon.
t Carquois, sm. a quiver; originally
tarquois, tarquais, from Low L, tarcasia,
transcription of Low Gr. ropKaaiov (a
quiver), introd. from the East by the early
Crusaders, with many other military terms :
it answers to the Turk, turkash.
CARRE, adj. and sm. square. See carrer.
CARREAU, sm. a tile. O. Fr. carrel, origin-
ally quarreel, from L. quadratell\iin, dim.
of quadratus (see carr4). Q,uadra(t)el-
lum loses its medial t (see abbaye and
§ 117), softens dr into r (see § 148), changes
qua into ca, see car; whence O. Fr. carrel
(which remains in carreler, carrellage,
decarreler), which has become carreau by
el = eau, see agneau.
CARREFOUR, sm. a cross-way (where four
ways meet). O. Fr, quarrefour, Prov.
carreforc, from L. quadrifureum. For
rc = rsee arbalete; for dr = rsee § 148;
for u = OM see § 90 ; for qua = ca see
car.
CARRELER, va. to pave with tiles. See
carreau. — Der. carrelet, -age.
CARRER, va. to square ; from L. quadrare.
For qua = ca see car ; for dr = r see § 148.
Carrer is a doublet of cadrer, q. v. —
Der. carre, contre-carrer, carruie (which
is a doublet of quadrature).
+ Car rick, sm. a top-coat, over-coat ; from
Engl, carrick.
CARRIERE, sf. a quarry (stone); from L.
quadraria * (in this sense used in several
medieval documents : a quarry is properly
the spot whence one draws out squared
stone, quadrata saxa). For qua = ca see
car ; for dr = r see § 148 ; for -&Tia, = -iere
see § 198. — Der. carrier.
Carri^re, sf. a career, a racecourse ; from L,
carrus.
f Carriole, sf. a carriole; introd. from
It. carriuola.
•j* Carrosse, sm. a coach, carriage; introd. *
in 16th cent, from It. carrozza. — Der. car-
rossier, carrossable.
t Carrousel, sm. a tilt, carousal ; introd.
from It. carosello.
Carte, sf. a chart ; from L. charta, carta *.
¥ox ch. = c see § 126. Carte is a doublet
of charte, q. v.
+ Cartel, sm. a challenge ; from It. car-
tello.
Cartilage, sf. cartilage; from L. cartila-
ginem.— Der. cartilagintMK.
CA R TON — CA TIMINI.
69
i* Carton, sm. pasteboard; introd. from It.
cartone. — Der. car/oranage, cartonmer.
t Cartouche, 5m. a cartouche, case (Archit.
and Military) ; introd. in i6th cent, from It.
cartoccio, which bears both senses, as in the
Fr.
Cartulaire, sm. a chartulary ; from L.
chartularium, a register of title-deeds,
acts, chartulae of a religious house. Car-
tulaire is a doublet of chartrier, q. v.
Cas, sm. a case ; from L. casus.
Casanier, adj. domestic ; der. through
casana * from L. casa : properly one who
stays at home is called casanier.
+ Casaque, sf. a cassock; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. casacca. — Der. casaqu'in.
CASAQUIN, sm. a jacket. See casaque.
i* Cascade, sf. a cascade; introd. in l6th
cent, from It. cascata.
t Case, s/, a little house; from Sp. casa.
From the sense of little house it comes to
that of a hut, a compartment, square. — Der.
crtsier, caser.
^Casemate, sf. a casemate ; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. casamatta.
t Caserne, s/. barracks; introd. from Sp.
caserne. Caserne is a doublet of quaterne,
q. V. — Der. caserntx, casernement.
Casimir, sm. kerseymere, cashmere; cor-
ruption of cachemire, q. v.
'f Casoar, sm. the cassowary, the Malay
name of the bird.
'f Casque, sm. a helmet; from It. casco. —
Der. casquet, a little light casque ; whence
casquette.
CASQUETTE, sf. a cap. See casque.
CASSE, sf. a case; now restricted in sense
to a printer's case, in compartments, but in
O. Fr. in the general sense of chest, box
{ = caisse). Its original meaning survives in
cassette, a little box. Casse is from L. capsa.
For ps = S5 see § 168 and caisse, of which
word it is a doublet. — Der. cassette, cassetin.
CASSE, §/". a crucible ; from Low L. caza,
which from O. H. G. kezi, a stove. — Der.
casserole.
Casse, sf cassia; from L. casia. — Der.
cassier.
CASSE, sf. a breaking, cashiering ; verbal
subst. of casser, q. v.
CASSER, va. to break ; from L. quassare.
For qua = ca see car. — Der. casse, cassuie,
cassation, concasscr.
CASSEROLLE, sf a saucepan. See casse.
CASSETTE, sf. a little box. See casse.
Cassis, sm. a black-currant bush. Origin
unknown.
tCassolette, -s^a scent-box, perfume-pan;
introd. from Sp. cazoleta.
t Cassonade, sf moist sugar; introd.
from Port, cassonada.
t Castagnettes,s/./)/. castanets; introd.
from Sp. Castanet as,
t Caste, sf caste ; from Port, casta^ of pure
unmixed race ; a word first applied to Hindu
' castes.'
f Castel, sm. a castle ; introd. in i6th cent.
from It. castello. Castel is a doublet of
chateau, q. v.
Castor, sm. a beaver; from L. castor.
Castrat, adj. and sm. castrated, an eunuch ;
from L. castratus. Caitrat'is a doublet of
chdtre. — Der. cas/ration.
Casuel, adj. casual, accidental ; from L.
casualis.
fCasuiste, sm. a casuist; introd. from
Sp. casuista.
Catachr^se, sf catachresis ; from Gr.
Karaxprjais.
Cataclysme, sm. a cataclysm, deluge ; from
Gr. KaraKAvafios.
t Catacombes,././)/. catacombs; introd.
from It. catacomba.
f Catafalque, sm. a catafalque; introd.
in 1 6th cent, from It. catafalco. Catafalque
is a doublet of echafaud, q. v.
Catalepsie, sf. catalepsy; from Gr. Kara-
XrjipLS. — Der. cataleptique.
Catalogue, sf a catalogue ; from Gr. Kard-
\oyos. = Der. cataloguer.
Cataplasme, sm. a cataplasm, poultice ;
from Gr. fcaTairXacrfM.
Catapulte, s/. a catapult; from L. cata-
pulta.
Cataracte,s/'. a cataract; fromL.cataracta.
Catarrhe, sm. a catarrh, cold ; from Gr.
Karappoos. — Der. catarrhs.], -eux.
Catastrophe, sf. a catastrophe ; from Gr.
KaTaaTpofp-q.
Catechiser, va. to catechise ; from Gr.
KaTTjxi-C^LV. Cat^chisme, sm. a cate-
chism; fr om Gr. KaTTjxicTfios*. Catech-
iste, sm.a catechist; from Gr. KaTr]xi'0"rr]S*.
Catechum^ne, sm. a catechumen ; from
Gr. KaTr]xovfj.(vos.
Cat6gorie, sf a category ; from Gr. Arariy-
yopia. — Der. ca^e^orique.
Cath6drale, sf. a cathedral; from eccles.
L. cathedralis, sc. ecclesia, a church in
which is the bishop's seat (cathedra).
Catholique, adj. catholic ; from Gr, naOo-
Klkos. — Der. catholicl&me, catholicity.
CATIMINI, adv. in a corner, stealthily. Ori-
gin unknown.
70
CA TIR — CEINDRE,
CATIR, va. to press, gloss (cloth) ; from
cat *, which is from L, coactus. For
loss of o see cacker; for ct = / see § i68 :
the It. quatto (from coactus) confirms
this etymology. — Der. cati (verbal subst.),
cn//ssage, dccatir.
CAUCHEMAR, sm. a nightmare, an incubus,
caused, according to old mythology, by the
presence of a supernatural being sitting on
the breast of the sleeper. Cauchemar is
properly a demon who presses, from the
two words mar (a demon in the Germ.,
which survives in Engl, night-mare and in
Germ, nacht-mar), and from cauche, the
O. Fr, verb caucher, to press. Caucher is
formed regularly from L. calcare. For
c = cA see § 126; for al = au see
agneau. Menage tells us that in his day
the cauchemar was called cauchevieille in the
Lyons dialect. Cauche-vieille,ihe old woman
who presses one down, = la vieille qtiipresse,
confirms the etymology given above.
Caudataire, adj. and sm. train-bearing, a
train-bearer; from L. caudatarius.
Cause, sf. cause; from L. causa. Cause
is a doublet of chose, q. v. — Der. causer (to
be the cause of), causalhe.
Causer, vn. to talk, chat; from L. causari,
to defend a cause, then to discuss, lastly to
talk. Causator is used for a pleader in
the Lex Salica. — Der. causewr, cawsette.
Caustique, adj. caustic ; from L.causticus.
Caut^le, sf. cunning, craft; from L. cautela.
— Der. cateltMX.
CatltSre, sm. a cautery, cauterizing iron ;
from L. cauterium. — Der. cau tenser, cau-
terisation.
Caution, sf. a caution ; from L. cautionem.
— Der. cautionner, cautionnement.
t Cavalcade, sf. a cavalcade; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. cavalcata. Cavalcade
is a doublet of chevauchee, q. v.
t Cavalcadour, sm. an equerry; introd.
in 1 6th cent, from It. cavalcalore.
i" Cavale, sf. a mare ; introd. in i6th cent,
from It. cavalla.
i* Cavalier, sm. a cavalier ; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. cavaliers. Cavalier is a doublet
of chevalier, q. v. — Der. cavalierement.
fCavalerie, sf cavalry; introd. in l6th
cent, from It; cavalleria. Cavalerie is a
doublet of chevalerie, q.v.
i*Cavatine, sf. a cavatina; introd. from
It. cavatina.
Cave, sf. a cellar, vault ; from L. cava (used
in this sense in the Roman land-surveyors).
— Der. eaveau.
Cave, adj. hollow ; from L. cavus.
CAVEAU, sm. a small cellar, vault. See
cave.
t Cavecon, sm. a snaffle-bridle; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. cavezzone.
Caver, va. to hollow ; from L. cavare.
t Caver, va. to stake; from It. cavare.-^
Der. Aicaver.
Caveme, sf. a cave, cavern ; from L. ca-
vern a. — Der. caverneviX.
+ Caviar, sm. caviare ; in i6th cent, cavial,
from It. caviale.
Cavit6, sf. a cavity ; from L. cavitatem.
CE, pron. this. O. Fr. fo, originally if 0, from
L. ecce-hoc, which has lost its h, see
atelier, and its final c, see ami and Hist.
Gram. p. 82 ; and then ecce-o (or ecc'o)
is changed to /fo by reducing cc into soft
c, and by changing e into i, see accomplir.
The O. Fr. igo was afterwards reduced to fo
(as ici to ci) whence mod. Fr. ce.
Just as ecce-hoc became ipo, ecce-hic
became ici (whence the adv. ci) ; ecce-hac
became 2fa* (whence the adv. fa) ; ecciste
became O. Fr. icist, later cist ( = celuci-ci in
O. Fr.), and this became cest (for i = e see
mettre), whence the mod. Fr. cet (for
the loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 81) ;
eccille became O.Yr. icil, then icel; icel
(whose fem. icelle survives in some legal
phrases) is reduced to eel (whose fem. celle
remains, while the masc. has perished, leav-
ing behind celui (for details see Hist.
Gram. p. 113). Eccillos produced O. Fr.
iceux (for i\\. = eu see agneau), just as illos
produced eux, and as capillos produced
cheveux ; iceux finally was reduced to mod.
Fr. ceux.
CEANS, adv. within, in this house. O. Fr.
Qaiens, originally ^aens, compd. of adv. fa
(q. V.) and ens, which from L. intus. For
in = 0. Fr. m = mod. Fr. an, see § 68, and
under andouille.
CECI, pron. this here ; compd. of ce and ci,
q.v.
C6cit§, sf. blindness; from L. caecitatem.
C6der, va. to yield; from L. cedere.
fC^dille, sf. a cedilla; introd. from Sp.
cedilla.
t C6dr at, sm. (Bot.) cedrat ; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. cedrato.
Cddre, sm. a cedar; from L. cedrus.
C6dule, sf. a schedule, note of hand ; from
L. schedula.
CEINDRE, va. to encompass, gird ; from L.
cingere. Cing(e)re having lost the atonic
penult (see § 51), becomes cin're, whence
CEINTURE — CERCLE.
71
ceindre, by euphonic intercalcation of d
(n'r = n-d-r), as in astringere, astreindre ;
pingere, peindre, etc., see Hist. Gram.
p. 7.:;. (See cem/7/re and absoiidre.)
CEINTURE,. sf. a girdle, sash; from L.
cinctura. For ct = / see § 168 ; for i = ei
cp. sinus, sein ; insignia, enseigne, etc.;
and all verbs in eindre answering to Lat.
-ingere, -imere : stringere, etreindre ;
astringere, astreindre, etc. — Der. cein-
turon.
CELA, pron. that ; compd. of ce and la, q. v.
Celadon, sm. a sentimental lover; of hist.
origin, see § 33 ; an allusion to Celadon de
I'Astree.
Cel^bre, adj. celebrated, famous ; from L.
celebrem. — Der. celebr'ile.
Celebrer, va. to celebrate ;■ from L. cele-
brare. — Der. ce7e6ration.
Celer, va. to conceal; from L. celare. —
Der. A&celer, receler.
f C61eri, sm. celery ; introd. from It. seleri,
a Piedmontese word.
C616rit6, sf. swiftness; from L. celerita-
tem.
C61este, adj. heavenly; from L. caelestis.
C61ibat, sm. celibate, celibacy ; from L.
caelibatus. — Der. celibata.iiQ.
CELLE, pron.f. that. See ce.
CELLIER, sm. cellar ; from L. cellarium.
For -Qxi\xra — -ier see § 198.
Cellule, sf. a little cell; from L. cellula.
Cellule is a doublet of ciaule, q. v. — Der.
celhdeux, celhihixe.
CELUI, pron. sm. this one. See ce.
Cement, sm. cement ; from L. caementum.
Cement is a doublet of ciment, q. v. — Der.
cementer, cemenUiion.
C6nacle, sm. a guest-chamber ; from L.
caenaculum.
CENDRE, sf. ashes, cinders. It. cenere, from
L. cinerem. Cin(e)rem, contrd. after
the rule. § 51, into cin'rem, becomes
cendre by change of i into e (see meitre),
of nr into ndr (see Hist. Gram. p. 73). —
Der. cendrex, cendrier, cendreux, cendriWon.
Cdne, sf. the Lord's Supper ; from L.
coena.
C6llobite, sm. a cenobite ; from L. coeno-
bita, one who Kves in the coenobium, or
convent.
Cenotaphe, sm. a cenotaph; from Gr.
KevoTa.<piov.
Cans, sm. census, annual quit-rent ; from L.
census. — Der. cens'iex, ce/zsitaire, censlve.
Censer, va. to deem, reckon ; whence partic.
cense, reputed; from L. censere.
Censeur, sm. a censor ; from L. censor.
Censure, sf. censure, blame; from L. c en-
sura. — Der. censurer.
CENT, adj. hundred ; from L. centum. —
Der. centa.ine, cenlennire.
CENTENIER, sm. a centurion; from L.
eentenarius. For -arius = -2Vr see § 198.
Centenier is a doublet of centenaire.
CENTIEME, adj. hundredth. O. Fr. cen-
tiesme, from L. centesimus. Centes(i)-
mus, conlr. into centes'raus after the rule
(§ 51), becomes centieme by the change of
e into ie (see arriere), and loss of s (see
Hist. Gram, p, 81). Centieme is a doublet
of centime, q. v.
CENTIME, sm. a centime (^ part of
a franc) ; from L. centesimus. Oen-
tes(i)mus, contrd. into centes'mus (see
§ 51), becomes centime by changing e into i
(see accomplir), and dropping s (Hist. Gram,
p. 81). Centime is a doublet of centieme, q.v.
Centon, sm. a cento ; from L. centonem.
CENTRE, sm. centre; from L. centrum.
CENTRAL, from L. centralis.— Der. cen-
traliser, decentraliser, concentrer, concen-
trique, excentrique.
Centrifuge, adj. centrifugal. Centripdte,
adj. centripetal. Words coined by the
learned, the first centrum with fugere,
and the second with petere.
Centuple, adj. augmented a hundredfold,
centuple; from L. centuplus. — Der. ceu'
tnpltr.
Centurie, sf. a century; from L. centuria.
Centurion, sm. a centurion; from L. cen-
turionem.
CEP, sm. a tree-stock, vine-stock; from L.
cippus *. For i = e see mettre ; for
V'9=P see chape. Cep is a doublet of cippe^
q.v. — Der. cepnge.
CEPENDANT, adv. however, =pendant cela.
See ce and pendant.
Cephalalgie, sf. head-ache; from Gr.
Ceramique, adj. ceramic ; from Gr. «€pa-
C6raste, sm. the cerastes ; from Gr. Acepa-
CTT^S.
Cerat, sm. cerate ; from L. ceratum, a
salve whose chief compound is wax, cera.
Cerat is a doublet of cire, q. v.
CERCEAU, sm. a hoop. O. Fr. cercel, from L.
circellus *. For i = e see mettre ; for
-ellus = -e/ = -eaw , see agneau.
CERCLE, sm. a circle; from L. circulus.
Circ(ii)lus, contrd. after rule (see § 51)
into circ'lus, changes i into e (see
7a
CERCUEIL — CHA IR .
mettre). — Der. eerchr, of which circuler is a
doublet.
CERCUEIL, sm. a coffin. O. Fr. sarcueil,
originally sarcueu, from L. sarcopha-
gus. Sarc6pMgus loses (see § 51)
the two final atonic syllables, and be-
comes sarmett by changing o into ue ; see
accueillir. Hence again, by corruption from
sarcueu, comes the form sarcueil, in which
the presence of the final / is unexplained.
Sarcueil has changed a into e, see acheter,
and s into c, as in salsa, sauce. The
study of proper names, which usually
gives us valuable aid in establishing the
origin of common nouns, here confirms for
us the above etymology, which connects
cercueil with sarcophagus : in the arron-
dissement of Lisieux is a place called Cer-
cueux, which in medieval documents is called
' Ecclesia de Sarcophagis.' Cercueil is a
doublet of sarcophage, q. v.
C6r6ale, adj. cereal; from L. cerealis.
C6r6bral, adj. cerebral; from L. cere-
bralis.
C§r§inonie, s/. a ceremony; from L.
caeremonia. — Der. ceremonial, -eux.
CERF, sm. a stag; from L. cervus. For
final v=/see § 142.
CERFEUIL, sm. chervil ; from L. caere-
folium. For loss of e, cer'folium, see
§ 52 ; for -6liwoa. = -euil seefeuille.
CERISE, sf. a cherry ; from L. cerasa, pi. of
cerastun. For a = t see aimant. — Der.
cmsier, cemaie.
CERNE, sm. a ring, circle ; from L. circinus.
Cir(ci)iius, contrd. according to rule (see
§ 51) into cir'nus, became cerne by
changing i into e ; see mettre. — Der. cern-
eau, cerner.
CERNER, va. to encircle. See cerne.
CERTAIN, adj. certain ; from L. certus, by
the adjunction of the Lat. suffix -anus =
~ain; see § 194. — Der. certainement.
CERTES, adv. certainly ; from L. certe.
For this addition of s see Hist. Gram,
p. 80.
Certiiicat, sm. a certificate; from L. cer-
tificatum*, partic. of verb certificare*,
whence certifier.
Certifier, va. to certify. See certificat.
Certitude, sf. certitude, certainty ; from L.
certitudo*.
C6ruse, sf. white lead; from L. cerussa.
CERVEAU, sm. the brain. O. Fr. cervel*,
from L. cerebellum. Cer(§)beUum,
contrd. according to rule (see § 52)
into cer'belluin, produced cerveau, by
b = v, see avant; (2) -ellum into -eau, see
agneau. Just as cerebellum becomes cer-
veau, so the fern, form cerebella became
cervelle. — Der. cerveht, 6cervel^.
t Cervel as, sm. a saveloy. In 16th cent.
cervelat ; introd. from It. cervellata.
CERVELLE, 5/ the brain. See cerveau.
Cervical, flrf/. cervical ; from L. cervical is.
CERVOISE, ./. ale, beer ; from L. cervisia
(in Pliny, who cites it as a word of Gaulish
origin, see § 19). For i = oi see § 68.
CESSER, vn. to cease ; from L. cessare. —
Der. cesse (verbal subst.), incessant, cass-
ation.
Cession, sf. a cession ; from L. cessionem.
— Der. cesszown aire.
Ceste, sm. a cestus, girdle ; from L. cestus.
ensure, sf. caesura ; from L. caesura.
GET, pron. this. See ce.
C6tace, ofi?;. cetaceous ; from L. cetaceus*,
der. from cetus.
CHABOT, sm. a miller's-thumb, chub (a big-
headed fish) ; from L. caput, with addition
of the suffix ot, to be found in Fr. in
cachot, bntlot, billot, etc. For c = ch see
achamer ; for p = fe see aheille. This fish
was called, for a like reason, Kk(f>aKos in
Gr. and capito in Lat.
t Chabraque, sf. the cloths on a cavalry
horse. A word introd. from Germ, scka-
brake.
fChacal, sm. a jackal; introd. from the
East by travellers. Pers. and Turk, schakal.
CHACUN, distrib. pron. each one. O. Fr.
chascun, chasqun, from L. quisque unus.
Quisque unus or quisq'unus becomes
cAasc7m by changing qu into ch (see § 126),
and i into a (see balance). For the loss
of s see § 148.
CHAFOUIN, sm. a pitiful-looking person.
In patois chatfouin, compd. of chat and
fouine.
+ Chagrin, sm. shagreen; introd. about
the 15th cent, from It. Venetian zagrin.
Chagrin, sm. affliction. Origin unknown.
— Der. chagriner.
CHAINE, sf. a chain ; from L. catena. For
loss of medial t see abbaye and § 1 1 7 ; for
e = i see accomplir. Chaine is a doublet
of cadcne. — Der. chainon (of which chignon,
q. v., is the doublet), chainette, enchainer,
d^chainer.
CHAIR, sf. flesh. O. Fr. char, originally charn,
from L. carnem. For c = cA see § 126;
for a = ai see § 54 ; for rn = n see aubonr.
— Der. charnQ\, charnier, chartiu, charn-
ure, cAarogne, decAarner, achamer.
CHA IRE — CHA NCELER .
73
CHAIRE, sf. a pulpit. O. Fr. chaere, from
L. cathedra, i. e. a raised seat from which
one speaks. For loss of medial t (th.) see
abbaye; for G — ch see § 126; for dr = r
see § 168. Before the 1 6th cent, the
word chaise did not exist, and chaire, like
cathedra, had the two meanings, ' a chair,
and ' a pulpit.' Thus Montaigne says, <S"t''
lanpant d'tme chaire (chaise), ok elle esloit
assise. In the 1 6th cent, the Parisians substi
tuted s for r (see arroser), and so transformed
chaire into chaise. Under Louis XIV the
phrase ran not une chaire de Droit, but U7ie
chaise de Droit, une chaise de Theologie.
Moliere says, Les savants ne sont bons que
pour precher en chaise ; shewing plainly
that chaise long kept the sense of chaire,
and is nothing but a slight variation of the
same word.
CHAISE, sf. a chair. See chaire.
CHALAND, sm. a lighter, barge. A word
of Byzantine origin, like many terms of sea-
faring and military art of the middle ages ;
from Low L. chelandium, Gr. x^^'^i'Stoi/.
Chaland, sm. a customer. Origin un-
known. — Der. achalander.
t Chale, sf. a shawl ; introd. from the East
by travellers. Ar. schdl.
+ Chalet, sm. a cheese-house, a chalet. A
Swiss word, from the Grisons patois.
Chalet is a doublet of chdtelet.
CHALEUR, sf. heat; from L. calorem.
For o = ch see § 126; for o = eu see § 79.
— Der. chaleureux.
CHALIT, sm. a wooden bedstead. Origin
unknown.
CHALOIR, vn. to be important, matter, lit.
to be hot ; from L. calere. For o = ch see
§ 126; for e = oz see § 63. For this verb
see Hist. Gram. p. 147. — Der. uonchaloir
(to care for nothing), whence the pres.
partic. nonchalant.
tChaloupe, sf. a launch, shallop. In
l6ih cent, chaluppe ; introd. from It. scia-
luppa.
CHALUMEAU, sm. straw, blow-pipe. O. Fr.
chalemel,ixom L. calamellus, dim. of cala-
mus. For o = ch see § 126; for -ellus
= -eau see agneau ; for a = u, through e,
cp. saccharum, Sucre; rhabarbarum,
" rhubarbe.
+ Chamade, sf. a parley ; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. chiamata.
CHAMAILLER, vn. to scuffle. Origin un-
known.
+ Chaniarre, ./. lace-work, embroidery;
from Sp. chamarra. — Der, chamarrex.
CHAMBELLAN, sm. a chamberlain. O. Fr.
chambellanc, originally chamberlenc ; It. cam-
arlittgo, from O, H. G. chamarlinc, an officer
of the chamber. For the assimilation of
rl into // see § 168 ; for the dissimilation of
mm into mb see § 169.
CHAMBRANLE, sm. a doorcase, window-
frame. Origin unknown.
CHAMBRE, sf. a chamber; from L. ca-
mera*. Cam(e)ra, contrd. regularly (see
§ 51) into cam'ra, becomes chambre, by
changing (1) c into ch, see § 126; (2)
m'r into mbr, see absoudre. — Der. cham-
brer (whose doublet is cambrer), cham-
brette, chambree (whose doublet is camer-
ade), chambritx, chambrieie (whose doublet
is catnerier).
CHAMEAU, sm. a camel. Originally chamel,
from L. camelus. For c = cA see § 126 ;
for -el = -eau see agneau — Der, cAamelle,
chameXitr.
+ Chamois, sm. a chamois; a word of
Swiss origin. — Der. chamoisem.
CHAMP, sm. a field ; from L. campus. For
c = ch see § 126. Champ is a doublet
of camp, q. v. — Der. champion, (who fights
in champ clos).
CHAMPART, sm. a field-rent; for champ-
part. A feudal term. See champ and part.
CHAMPETRE, adj. rural, rustic; from L.
campestris. Forc=^ch see § 126; for loss
of s see § 126 and Hist. Gram. p. 81.
CHAMPIGNON, sm. a mushroom ; from L.
campinionem.*, i. e. that which grows in
the fields; deriv. of cam.pus. For G = ch
see § 126; {orni= gn see Hist. Gram, p. 64.
CHAMPION, sm. a champion. See champ.
CHANCE, sf chance, hazard. O. Fr. che-
ance, It. cadenza, from L. cadentia, that
which falls out fortunately, from cadere,
a term used in dice-playing. For loss of
medial d see accabler and § 120; iox Q = ch
see § 126 ; for -tia = -ce see § 192. Chance
is a doublet oi cadence, q. v. — Der. chanceux.
CHANCEL, sm. a chancel, the grating sepa-
rating the choir from the nave ; from L.
cancellus, the grating or bar dividing the
judgment-seat from the people. The cancel-
larius was the officer who stood by this
bar. From cancellarius, first an usher,
then a scribe, a notary, comes mod. Fr.
chancelier, by changing (l) c into ch, see
§ 126; (2) -arius into -ier, see § 198.
Chajtcel is a doublet of cancel, q. v.
CHANCELER, vn. to stagger, reel ; from L.
cancellare, to make zigzags, thence to walk
unevenly, to stagger. For G = ch see § 126.
74
CHANCRE — CHAPEA U,
CHANCRE, sm. a canker, cancer; from L.
cancrum. For o = ch see § 126.
Chancre is a doublet of cancre, cancer.
CHANDELLE, sf. a candle; from L. can-
dela. For c = cA see § 126 Der.
chandelier, chandehnx, the feast of candles
(oandelae). Chandeleur represents the
Lat. candelarum in the phrase ' festa S.
Mariae candelarum.'
CHANFREIN, sm. chamfron, armour for a
horse's head. Origin unknown.
CHANGER, va. to change, exchange, barter ;
from L. cambiare*, in the Lex Salica, der.
from the form cambire, to be found in
Apuleius). Cambiare becomes changer by
consonification of ia (see abrSger and Hist.
Gram. p. 65) and fall of b (see Hist. Gram,
p. 81). Forc = cAsee § 126. For the change
of m into n, we find it in Lat. tamdiu or
tandiu, quandiu or quamdiu, and in in-
scriptions quen, tan, ren, for quem,
tarn, rem. This change also takes place
in Fr. (i) At the beginning of words, as
in matta, «a//^; ma.p pa., nappe; mespi-
lum, nPJle. Natta is to be found in Gre-
gory of Tours, and nespilum in Low Lat.
(2) In the middle of words, most often
when m is blunted by being in contact with
another consonant, as in commjatus*,
conge; pum'cem, ponce, etc. Also in
dama, daine; comestabilis*, coufittahle.
(3) At the end of words, in summum, son ;
suum, son; meum, man, etc. See also
imder airain. — Der. change (verbal subst.),
Techanger, rtchange, echanger, changem,
changement.
CHANOINE, sm. a canon ; from L. canon-
icus. Thi« word, accented on the o, has,
according to rule (see § 51), lost its two
atonic vowels. For c = ck see § 126.
o becomes oi by the attraction of the i,
as in historia, histoire, § 84. o also
becomes o«, as in focarium, /o^er, § 83.
Chanoine is a doublet of canonique, q. v. —
Der. chanoine&se.
CHANSON, sf. a song; from L. cantio-
nem. For c = cA see § 126; for tiare =
ser see § 264. — Der. chansonnler, chanson-
nette.
CHANT, sm. a song, chant ; from L. cantus.
For c = c/t see § 126.
CHANTEAU, sm. a cantle, hunch. O. Fr.
chanlel, from L. cantellus*, dim. of can-
tus* (a corner). For -e\lvis = -eau see
agneau ; for G = ch see § 1 26.
CHANTEPLEURE, sf. a long funnel, tap.
See chanter and pl^urer.
CHANTER, va. to sing ; from L. cantare.
For o = ch see § 126. — Der. chanfear
(whose doublet is chantre), chanttuse, de-
chanter, chantoimcr , chatitereWe.
CHANTIER, sm. a yard, timber-yard, &c. ;
from L. canterium, a beam of strong
wood. For o = ch see § 126; for e = ie
see § 56.
CHANTRE, sm. a singer, chanter ; from L.
cantorem. This word, coming to be proncd.
cant(6)rem, was contrd. according to
rule (§51) into cant'r, changing c into ch ;
see § 1 26. Chantre is a doublet of chanteur.
CHANVRE, sm. hemp ; from L. cannabis.
Cann(a)bis, contrd. according to rule
(§ 51) into cann'bis, ought to have
become chanve, by change of c into ch
(see § 126) and b into v (see § 113).
This form chanve exists in fact in Picardy in
patois, and doubtless existed in O. Fr. The
intercalation of an r, whence chanvre, is to
be met with in a few words, as in funda,
fronde; encaustum, encre,8cc. See Hist.
Gram. p. 80. The form regestrum for re-
gestum is to be found at a very earlyperiod.
Chaos, sm. chaos; from L. chaos. — Der.
chaotique.
CHAPE, sf. a cope ; from L. cappa(a hooded
cloak, in Isidore of Seville). For G = ch
see § 126. pp becomes p, as in cuppa,
coupe; sappa, sape ; pupis, poupe ;
stuppa*, etottpe. And we also find the
form capa beside cappa in certain Lat.
documents. — Der. chaperon, chapezu
(O. Fr. chapel, properly a little chape). For
-el = eau see agneau. The O. Fr. form had
a dim. chapelet, a little head-dress, con-
sisting usually of a crown of flowers.
Ronsard, speaking of a maiden watering
lilies, says Soir et matin les arrose Et a
ses noces propose De s'en faire un chapelet.
The chapelet de roses, a chaplet of roses
placed on the statues of the Virgin,
shortly called a rosaire, or rosary, came
later to mean a sort of chain, intended
for counting prayers, made of threaded
beads, which at first were made to re-
semble the chaplets of the Madonna.
Another deriv. of capa is the dim. ca-
pella, which from the 7th cent, has had
the sense of a chapel : originally a ca-
pella was the sanctuary in which was pre-
served the cappa, or cope of S. Martin,
and thence it was expanded to mean any
sanctuary containing relics.
CHAPEAU, sm. a hat. See chape.— Dei.
chapeUei, from O. Fr. chapel'.
CHAPELA IN — CHARRIER.
75
CHAPELAIN, sm. a chaplain. See chapelle.
CHAPELER, va. to chip, rasp, bread ; from L.
capulare. For o^ch see § 126. Here
u = e as in juniperus, genievre. — Der.
chapelmt.
CHAPELET, sm. a chaplet. See chape.
CHAPELLE, /. a chapel. See chape.— Der.
chapehin.
CHAPERON, sm. a hood. See chape.— Der.
chaperonner.
CHAPITEAU, sm. a capital, top, cap. O. Fr.
chapitel, from L. capitellum. For c — ch
see § 126; for -ellum = -e(37^ seeagrieatt.
CHAPITRE, sm. a chapter. O. Fr. chapitle,
from L, capitulum. Capit(u)lum, con-
tracted by rule (see § 51) into capit'lum,
becomes chapitre by changing (l) cinto ch,
see § 126; (2) 1 into r, see § 157. — Der.
chapitrev (to reprimand in full chapter).
Chapitrer is a doublet o{ capituler, q. v.
CHAPON, sm. a capon ; from L. caponem.
For c = cA see § 126, Chapon is a doublet
of capon, q. v.
CHAQUE, adj. each. O. Fr. chasque. For
its etymology see chacun.
^HAR, sm. a car, chariot ; from L. carrus.
For c = ch see § 126. — Der, charner,
charvoyer, charrette, charron, chariot.
^ Charade, sf. a charade ; a word of Prov.
origin (§ 24), introd. during the l8th
cent. Origin unknown.
CHARANgON, sm. a weevil. Origin un-
known.
CHARBON, sm. coal ; from L. carbonem.
For Q = ch see § 126. Charbon is a
doublet of carbone. — Der. charbonner, char-
bonnier, charbonnee (of which carbonade is
the doublet).
CHARCUTIER, sm. a pork-butcher. Chair-
cutier as late as Rousseau ; in the 17th cent.
chaircuitier; hx\gmA\y chair cuitier, properly
a seller of cooked meat, as opposed to a
butcher, who sells it raw. For the etymology
see chair and cuite. — Der. charcuieiie, char-
cuter.
CHARDON, sm. a thistle; from L. cardu-
onem*, der. from carduus. For c = ch
see § 126 ; for loss of the u see
§ 52. — Der. chardonneret, a goldfinch;
O. Fr. chardonnet, properly a bird which
frequents the thistle. As a confirmation
of this origin we may mention the fact
^that the Latins similarly called the bird car-
duelis from carduus, and the Greeks
d/cavBis from aKavOos ; and lastly, the
Germans call it distelfinh, the thistle-finch.
It. caricare, from L. carricare, used
by St. Jerome for ' to load.' Carr(i)Gare
was soon contrd., according to rule (see
§ 52), into car'care. The Glosses of
Reichenau (8th cent.) have 'onerati =
carcati.' Carcare became charger by
changing (i) the initial c into ch (see
§ 126 ; (2) re into rg (see § 129). Charger
is a doublet of carguer, q.v. — Der. charge
(verbal subst.), chargemenX., dccharger, sur-
charger.
CHARIOT, sm. a wagon. See char.
CHARITE, sf. charity ; from L. caritatem.
For c = cA see § 126 ; for -atem = -e
see § 230. Charite is a doublet of cherte,
q. V. — Der. chariiMe.
CHARIVARI, sm. a mock serenade. Origin
unknown.
t Charlatan, sm. charlatan, quack; introd.
in 1 6th cent, from It. ciarlatano. — Der.
charlata?ii%me.
CHARME, sm. a witch-elm ; in the Berry
patois charne. It. carpino, from L. carpi-
nus. Car(pi)nus is contrd. according to
rule (§ 51) into car'nus, whence charme
by changing (i) c into ch (see § 126);
(2) n into m, a change of which this word
is almost the only example. — Der, charmoie.
CHARME, sm. a charm, enchantment; from
L. carmen. For o = ch see § 126. — Der.
charmer, charmant.
CHARNEL, adj. carnal. See chair.
CHARNIER, sm. a larder. See chair. Char-
nier is a doublet of cornier.
CHARNU, adj. fleshy, brawnv. See chair.
CHARNIERE, sf. a hinge;' from L. ear-
dindria, der. from cardinem. Card-
(i)ndria, contrd. according to rule (see
§ 52) into card'naria, becomes charniere
by changing (l) c into cA (see § 126);
(2) dn into n (see aller) ; (3) -aria into
-i?re (see § 198).
CHAROGNE, sf. carrion. See chair.— Cha-
rogne is a doublet of carogne.
CHARPENTIER, sm. a carpenter ; from L.
carpentarius, which is properly a cart-
wright or wheelwright = cAarro«, for which
see § 12. For o — ch see § 126; for
-arius = -?er see § 198. — Der. charpenter,
charpente (verbal subst.).
CHARPIE, sf. lint, a partic. subst. (see
§ 188) of O. Fr. verb active charpir; from
L. carpere. For c = ch see § 126; for
e = i see § 59.
CHARRETTE, sf. a cart. See c^ar.— Der.
charretier, charretee.
CHARRIER, va. to cart, carry. See char.
75
CHARROVER — CHA UDl'^RE.
CHARROYER, va. to cart, carry. See char.
— Der. ckarroi (verbal subst.).
CHARRUE, sf. a plough ; from L. oarruca.
For c = cA see § 126; for -uca = -we see
§237.
CHARTE, sf. a charter, chartulary ; from
L. oharta. Charta, being really proncd,
carta, afterwards became charte by re-
turning from c to ch (see § 126). Charte
is a doublet of carte, q. v.
CHARTRE, sf. a charter ; from L. char-
tula, dim. of charta (see charte). Char-
t(ii)la, contrd. according to rule (§ 51)
into chart'la, changed 1 into r; see § 157.
— Der. chartriei (of which the doublet is
cartulaire, q. v.).
CHARTRE, ./. a prison ; from L. car-
eer. For o = ch see § 126; c'r (care'r)
becomes tr by change of c into t, of which
there is no other example in the modern
Fr. language.
CHAS, sm. the eye of a needle. Origin un-
known,
CHASSE, sf. a shrine, reliquary ; from L.
capsa. For c = ch see § 126 ; for ps = ss
see caisse. — Der. chassis, enc^asser.
CHASSE, sf chase, hunting, verbal subst. of
chasser, q. v. Chasser is a doublet of
caisse, q. v,
CHASSER, va. to hunt, chase ; from L. cap-
tiare*, deriv. of captare, which has
taken the sense of 'to chase' in late Lat. In
Propertius ' captare feras ' is used in the
sense of ' to hunt wild beasts.' For c = ch
see § 126 ; for tiare = sser see agencer; for
assimilation of r see caisse. — Der. chasse,
chasseur, chasseresse, pomchasser.
CHASSIE, sf blear -eyedness. Origin un-
known. — Der. chassieux.
CHASSIS, sm. a frame, sash, chase. See chasse.
CHASTE, adj. chaste ; from L. castus. For
c = ch see § 126. — Der. chastele (of which
the O. Fr. doublet was chastee).
CHASUBLE, sf. a chasuble ; from L. casi-
bula *, dim. of casula, which is used by
Isidore of Seville for a mantle. Casibula
or casubula, contrd. regularly (§ 51)
into casub'la, became chasuble by changing
c into ch (see § 126).
CHAT, sm. a cat ; from L. catus (Isidore of
Seville). For c = ch see § 126. — Der.
chatoyer (to change colour Hke a cat's eye :
those precious stones which jewellers call
cat's eyes are pierres chatoyantes), chatte
mite (from chatte and mite, L. mitis).
CHATAIGNE, sf a chestnut. O. Fr. chas-
taigne, from L. castdnea. For G — ch see
§ 126 ; for a = a/ see 54; for -nea = -^«c
see 244; for loss of 8 see Hist. Gram. p. 81.
— Der. chdtaigmer, chdtaignenie.
CHATEAU, sm. a castle. O. Fr. chastel, from
L. castellum. For -ellum = -ea7i see
agneau ; for c = cA see § 126; for loss of s see
Hist. Gram. p. 81. Chateau is a doublet of
O. Fr. castel. — Der. (from O. Fr. chalel)
chatelime, chdtelenie, chdtelet.
CHAT-HUANT, sm. the screech-owl ; in 17th
cent, chahuan in Menage, chnuhan and
chouhan in the Anjou patois; in the 16th
cent, chouan in Ronsard. This form chouan
is the real form of the word (and besides,
naturalists still give the name of chouan to
the middle-sized horned owl). Chouan is
a dim. of O. Fr. choue. Choue is in its turn
derived from O. H. G. chouch, the owl : the
Germ, root-word has also a form choue,
whence Fr. choucas. The O. Fr. choue has
left two derivations, chouette and chouan,
whence chat-huant, a word whose present
spelling would mislead us to imagine a
deriv. from chat and huer, which is very far
from being the case.
CHATIER, va. to chastise. O. Fr. chastier,
from L. castigdre. For loss of g see
§ 131 ; for c — ch see § 126; for loss of s
see Hist. Gram. p. 81. — Der. chdtiment.
CHATON, sm. a bezel. O. Fr. chaston,
originally caston, from Germ, hasten.
CHATOUILLER, va. to tickle; from L.
cattuliare* (der. from cattvilire = titil-
lare, to tickle). For c = ch see § 126;
for u = ou see § 90; for Ui = ill see ail.
— Der. chatouillement.
CHATOYER, va. to sparkle, change in hue.
See chat.
CHATRER, va. to castrate, geld. O. Fr.
chastrer, from L. castrare. For c = ch see
§ 126 ; for loss of s see Hist.feram. p. 81. —
Der. chdtre (of which the doublet is castrat).
CHATTEMITE, sf. a demure-looking person.
See chat.
CHAUD, adj. warm. O. Fr. chald. It. caldo,
from L. caldus, which was used in Rome
in the time of Augustus for calidus, as is
seen in Quinctilian, i. 6, 'Sed Augustus
quoque in epistolis ad Caium Caesareni
scriptis, emendat quod is dicere calidum
quam caldum malit : non quia illud non sit
latinum, sed quia sit odiosum.' For c — ch
see § 126; for al = aM see agneau. — Der.
6chaudeT, rechaud.
CHAUDIERE, sf a copper ; from L. calda-
ria : ' Vasa caldaria' is used by Vitruvius,
For c = ch see § 126; for al = om see
CHA UDRON — CHENIL.
17
agneati ; for -aria = -zVre see § 198. — Der.
chaudron (O. Fr. chauderon, der. from
chaudere, another form of chaudiere. Simi-
larly m'Si^.c alder on is deriv. from caldera).
CHAUDRON, sm. a caldron, kettle. See
chaudiere. — Der. chaudronnler.
CHAUFFER, va. to warm, heat. Prov. cal-
far. It. calefare, from calefare *, contrd.
form of calefacere. For loss of e
(cal'fare) see § 52 ; for c = cA see § 126 ;
for al = au see agneau. — Der. chauffe
(verbal subst.), chauffzgt, chattffoir, chauf-
ferette, chauffeur, ^chauffer, rechauffer.
CHAULER, va. to lime, steep in. lime-water.
See chanx.
CHAUME, sm. a stalk, haulm ; from L. cala-
mus, which is written calmus in a docu-
ment dated A. d, 672. Cal(a)raus, contrd.
regularly (§ 51) into cal'inus, became
chaume by changing c into ch, see § I26;
and al into au, see agneau. — Der. chaum-
iere, chaumme.
CHAUSSE, sf. a shoulder-knot. See chausser.
CHAUSSEE, sf. a causeway, embankment.
Prov. causada, Sp. calzada, from L. cal-
ciata* (sc. via) properly = i»ozc ma^onnee
h la chaux (a road made with lime). Cal-
ciata is from calcem. For Q = ch see
§ 126; for al = au see agneau; for
ci = ss see agencer ; for -ata = -e'e see am-
poule.
CHAUSSER, va. to put on (shoes or stock-
ings) ; from L. calceare. For c = ch see
§ 126; for al = aw see agneau ; for ce = ss
see agencer. — Der. chausses (verbal subst.),
chaussette, chausson (of which the doublet
is cale^on), chausswve, dechausses, d6chaux,
chatisse-trape (properly a snare, trap, which
shoes the foot).
CHAUSSE-TRAPPE, sf. a caltrop, trap. See
chausser and trappe.
CHAUVE, adj. bald ; from L. calvus. For
, c = c/i see § 126 ; for al = aM see agneau.
— Der. chajwe-somis (a bat), so called be-
cause its wings are membranaceous and have
no feathers. The Glosses of Reichenau (8th
cent.) give us ' Vespertiliones = calves
sorices.'
AUVE-SOURIS, sm. a bat. See chauve.
UX, sf. lime. Prov. calz, It. cake, from
L. calcem. For c=-ch see § 126; for
al = aw see agneau.
AVIRER, vna. to capsize, upset ; from
chapvirer, properly to be turned upside
down ; from virer (q. v.) and chap (from L.
caput). For c = cA see § 126.
HEF, sm, a head, chief; originally head, as
in Ze ch e f c?'w« saint, un corwr e-ch.e f : from
L. caput. For c = ch see § 126; for
a = e see § 54. p has here become /
after having gone through all the stages of
the phonetic scale (p, b, v,f), as is shown
by Low Lat. cabo (for caput), and loth-
cent. Fr. cheve. Like chef, the two words
praesaga, /resarV, mespilum, nefle, have
also changed p into/. Chef is a doublet of
cap, q. v. — Der. a.cheveT (q. v.), chevet (the
' head ' of a bed), chef-lieu.
CHEMIN, sm. a way, road. Prov. camin. It.
cammino, from L. carainus *, found in 6th-
cent. documents for a road. For ca = cAe
see §§ 126 and 54. — Der. cheminer,
acheminex.
CHEMINEE, sf. a chimney. It. camminata,
from L. caminata, deriv. of caminus,
used by Vitruvius for a chimney. Forca==
che see §§ 126 and 54; for -ata = -ee
see § 201.
CHEMISE, sf a shirt, shift ; from L. camisia.
Paulus, the abbreviator of Festus, says of
the word supparus : ' Supparus, vesti-
mentum lineum quod camisia dicitur.'
For 00, = che see §§ 126 and 54.
CHENAL, sm. a channel; from L. cana-
lis. For 00. = che see §§ 126 and 54.
Another form of this word is chcneau (for
l = w see ag?ieau). Chenal is a doublet of
canal.
+ Chenapan, sw. a scamp, blackguard;
introd. towards end of 17th cent, by the
Germ, wars, from Germ. sch?iapphahn.
CHENE, sm. an oak. O. Fr. chesne, from L.
casnus * ( = an oak in a Chartulary of A. d,
508). For ca, = che see §§ 126 and 54;
for loss of s see Hist, Gram. p. 81. The form
casnus is a transformation of the regular
quercinus (querc'nus) by changing re
into rs, s : this rs = s is found in Fr. in
dorsum, dos, etc. (§ 154), and also in
Lat. The Romans said dos sum for dor-
sum, sussum for sursum, prosa for
prorsa, retrosum for retrorsum. Even
introsus is found for introrsus in an in-
scription (Orelli, 14034). For qn = c see
car. — Der. chena.ie.
CHENET, sm. a dog, andiron. O. Fr. chien-
net. See chien.
CHENEVIS, S7n. hempseed ; from L. canna-
bisium. *, deriv. of cannabis. Forca =
che see §§ 126 and 54 ; for b = t/ see avant
and § 113. — Der. chenevihxe, chenevotte.
CHENIL, sm. a kennel ; from L. canile *,
place where dogs are kept. Canile is
from canis, like equile from equus.
78
CHENILLE — CHE VA LIER.
agnile from agnus, etc. Foroa = cAesee
§§ 126 and 54.
CHENILLE, sf. a caterpillar ; from L. canf-
oiila, a name drawn from the likeness of
the head of certain caterpillars to that of a
little dog. This etymology, which at first
sight seems strange, is confirmed by the
fact that the caterpillar has in many
idioms received the name of other animals ;
as in Milanese cagnon ( = a little dog) : in
other parts of Italy it it called gattola (a
little cat). The Portuguese call it lagarta
(a Uzard). For ca. = che see §§ 120 and
54 ; for -icula, = -ille see § 257. Chenille
is a doublet of canicule. — Der. 4cheniller.
CHENU, adj. hoar-headed ; from L. canutus,
deriv. ofcanus. ¥oTC& = che see §§ 126
and 54 ; for -utus = -tt see § 201.
CHEPTEL, sm. leased-out cattle. Prov.
capial, from L. capitale. Cap(i)tale,
contrd, regularly (see § 52) into cap'-
tale, becomes cheptel by changing ca into
che (see §§ 126 and 54), and -ale into
-el (see § 191.) Cheptel is a doublet of
captel, capitale.
CHER, acf;. dear ; fromL. carus. For ca =
che see §§ 126 and 54. — Der. cher'ii,
c/ierement.
CHERCHER, va. to seek. Prov. cercar. It.
cercare, from L. circare, used by Proper-
tius for to wander hither and thither. For
o = ch see § 126; for i = e see mettre ;
for Q, = e see § 54. — Der. cherchem, re-
chercher, recherche.
CHERE, sf. cheer, good fare ; from L. cara,
a face, countenance, used by Corippus, a
6th-cent. poet, in his Paneg. ad Justinum :
' Postquam venere verendam Caesaris ante
caram.' Faire bonne chere took its present
sense of 'eating a good dinner' only in
modern times ; formerly it was —faire bon
accueil, and originally —faire bon visage, as
the proper sense of chere is a face, as in
Patelin's lines. Que ressemblez-vous bien de
chere Et du tout a vostre feu pere. For
ca, = che see §§ 126 and 54.
CHERIR, va. to cherish. See cher. — Der.
cherissMe, cncherir, rencherir, smencherir.
CHERTE, sf, dearness, high price; from L.
.caritatem. Car(i)tatein, contrd. regu-
larly (see § 52) into car'tatem, be-
comes cherte by changing (l) ca into
che, see §§ 126 and 54 ; (2) -atem into -e,
see § 230.
Ch^rubin, sm. a cherub; from eccles, L.
cherubim, introd. into Lat. by St. Jerome
(§ 30).
CHETIF, adj. poor, mean, bad; in 13th
cent. c/jfliV// (Joinville), in nth cent, caitif
(Chanson de Roland) ; It. cattivo ; from L.
captivus, a prisoner, in Class. Lat., but
used in sense of chetif, mean, poor-looking,
in Imperial times, as we see in the Mathesis
of Firmicus Maternus, viii. 24, a treatise on
astrology written by this Christian contro-
versialist, who was a contemporary of Con-
stantine, and died about a. d. 436 : ' Vice-
sima pars Sagittarii, si in horoscopo in-
venta fuerit, homines facit nanos, gibbosos,
captivos, ridiculosque.' How then has
the word passed from its proper Lat. sense of
* captive ' to that of ' mean ' and * weak ' ?
A parallel Fr. metaphor will help to explain
it : the word chartre, which properly means
a prison, is also said in the Diet, de
I'Acaddmie Fran9aise to signify the mesen-
teric phthisis to which children are liable ;
the phrase un enfant est en chartre being
used for a child attacked by this malady.
Popular superstition, in its faith in fairies
and evil spirits, likened consumption to a
mysterious prison-house in which the sick
person is held captive till he dies by an in-
visible hand : and thus the sick person,
the chetif, is the ' captive ' of that fatal
malady. The L. captivus having thus
this double signification, handed it down to
the Romance languages : thus It. cattivo is
both ' captive ' and ' bad.' O. Fr., richer
and fuller than the modern language, gave
to the word chetif both, senses ; as we see in
Joinville that St. Louis delivered les chetifs
(i. e. the Christian ' captives ' of the Sara-
cens). As to the form of the word,
captivus becomes caitif by dropping
final -us, by final v=/ (§ 142), by pt = ^
(§ 168), and by a = cz (§ 54). Caitif
(introd. into England by the Normans in
the form caitiff) becomes in the 1 2th cent.
chaitifhy c = ch (§ 126), in the 13th cent.
chetif by ai = e (§ 103). Chetif is a
doublet of captif.
CHEVAL, sm. a horse; from L. caballus.
For GO, = che see §§ 126 and 54; for
h=v see § 113. — Der. cheval'm, chevalet,
dim. oicheval; similarly the Romans used
equuleus, the dim. of equus. Cheval is
a doublet of cavale.
CHEVALIER, sm. a knight ; from L. cabal-
larius, used by Isidore of Seville as = alaris
eques. For ca = che see §§ 126 and
54; for l) = i/ see § 113; for -arius =
-ier see § 198. Chevalier is a doublet of
cavalier, q. v. — Der. chevaltxic (whose
CHEVA UCHER — CHIEN.
79
doublet is cavalerie), chevalihre, chevaler-
esque (a word formed after It. cavaller-
esco).
CHEVAUCHER, vn. to ride. O. Fr. cheval-
cker, It. cavalcare, Sp. cabalgar, from L.
caballicare*. We find in the Salic Law,
tit. 25, ' Si quis caballum sine permissu
domini sui ascenderit, et euni caballica-
verit.' Caball(i)care, contrd. regularly
(see § 52) into cabal'care, becomes che-
vaiicher by changing (l) ca into che, see
§§ 126 and 54; (2) b into v, see
§ 113; (3) al into au, stt agneau. — Der.
chevauchee (whose doublet is cavalcade,
q. v.).
CHEVELU, adj. long-haired. See cheveu.
CHEVELURE, sf. head of hair, hair. O. Fr.
cheveleure. It. capellatura, from L. capilla-
tura, used by S. Augustine, der. from
capillum. Capella(t)ura having regu-
larly lost its medial t (se^ abbnye) becomes
chevelure by changing (i) ca into che,
see §§ 126 and 54; (2) p into v, see
§ III; (3) by contracting eu into u, see
mur.
CHEVET, sm. a bed-head. See chef.— Der.
cheveder (a choir-master, from chevet, for-
merly the name for the choir of a church).
CHEVETRE, sm. a halter. O. Fr. chevestre,
Sp. cabestro, It. capestro; from L. capis-
trum. For ca, = che see §§126 and 54;
for p = u see § 1 1 1 ; for i = « see mettre ; for
loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 81. — Der.
s'enchevetrer, used of a horse which catches
its leg in the halter (chevetre), whence
metaph. to get entangled, embarrassed.
CHEVEU, sm. a hair. O. Fr. chevel, from L.
capillum. For CQ, = che see §§ 126 and
54; for p = u see § ill; for i\ = el
see mettre ; for el = eu see agfteau. — Der.
(from O. Fr, chevel) cheveln, echeveler
{echevezu).
GHEVILLE, sf. a peg, pin. It. caviglia, from
L. clavicula * , a wooden peg. For
-iciila = -27Ze see § 257; for a=e see
§ 54. Clavicula ought to have given
cleville; but euphony caused a dissimila-
tion (§ 169) ; for the reduction of cl
I into c see able; for c — ch see § 126.
i Cheville is a doublet of clavictde, q. v.
CHEVRE, smf. a goat ; from L. capra. For
ca, = che see §§ 126 and 54; for p = v
see § III. — Der. chevrea.n, chevreite,
chevron, chevrier, chevroter, chevrotin,
chevroiine (buckshot, shot to shoot goats
L. caprifolium. For the changes here
see under chevre zfid feuille.
CHEVREUIL, sm. a roe, roebuck ; from L.
capreolus. For ca = c/ie see §§ 126 and
54 ; for p = 1/ see § 1 1 1 ; for -eolus =
-euil see a'iejil and § 253, Chevreuil is a
doublet of cabriole.
CHEVRON, sm. a rafter; from L, caprio-
nem *. The word capriones is found in
the Glosses of Cassel (8th cent,). For the
changes of letters see chevre. As to the
transition in meaning (§ 13), the like meta-
phor existed in Lat, The Romans called a
rafter capreolus (a little goat),
CHEVROTER, vn. to sing tremulously (like
a kid's bleating). See chevre.
CHEVROTINE, sf buckshot. See chevre.
CHEZ, prep, at the house of; from L. casa.
For ca = che see §§ 126 and 54; for
s = z see 7tez. Chez was in very O, Fr, a
subst, meaning a house. The Grand
Coutumier speaks of ces maisons et chez
esquels les marchands mettent leur mar-
chandise. In the lith cent, people said je
vais a chez Gautier = ^ Ya.do ad casaru
Walterii,' to Walter's cottage ; or je viens
de chez Gautier. But this distinction
speedily shifted ; the phrase a chez became
chez, but de chez remains, and bears witness
by its form that the word was originally a
subst. See § 13. Chez is a doublet of case,
q. V.
t Chicane, sf. chicanery, sharp practice ;
another example of those changes of mean-
ing noticed in § 13, Before being used
for sharp practice in lawsuits, it meant a
dispute in games, particularly in the game
of the mall; and originally it meant the
game of the mall : in this sense chicane re-
presents a form zicanum *, which is from
medieval Gr. r^vKaviov, a word of Byzan-
tine origin. — Der. chicaner.
CHICHE, sf. chick-peas; from L, cicer.
For c = ch see § 126,
CHICHE, adj. niggardly ; from L, ciccum,
that which is of little worth. For o = ch
see § 126; for cc — ch see acheter and
§ 168,
Chicor§e, sf chicory ; in 1 6th cent, cichoree,
from L. cichorium.
CHIEN, sm. a dog ; from L, canis. For
o = ch see § 126; for a. = ie see § 54.
—Der. chienne, che?iet (which in O. Fr, was
chiennet, a dog, andiron, so called because
it had a dog's head on its end : in Provence
it was called formerly un chenet cafuec, —
chien de feu, a dog which guards the fire ;
8o
CHIFFE — CHOU.
^
ill Germ, the word feiierbock is used in this
sense).
CHIFFE, sf. a rag. Origin unknown. — Der,
chiffon, chiffonnier.
CHIFFRE, sm. a numeral, digit, figure. O. Fr.
ci/re, which in early O. Fr. meant zero, like
low Lat. cifra (' cifra, figura nihil! ' says
the Breviloquus) a word of Ar. origin,
like so many mathematical terms, represent-
ing the Ar. ^ifr. Chiffre is a doublet of
zero, q. v. — Der. chiffrer, dochiffrer.
CHIGNON, sm, the nape of the neck, cervical
vertebrae. Buffon often speaks of le chig-
non du cou (by extension it is used to de-
signate the back hair of a lady gathered by
a riband and resting on* the back of the
neck). Chignon in its proper sense was in
O. Fr. chaignon, originally chaaignon, from
L. catenionem *. Ca(t)enionem loses
its medial t regularly (see ahbaye), and be-
comes chaignon. For c = cA see § 126 ; for
Txi = gn see cigogne and § 244. Chignon
is a doublet of chainon, q. v.
Chim^re, sf. a chimera ; from L. chimaera.
— Der. chimerique.
Chimie, sf. chemistry; from L. chymia *.
— Der. chimique, chimiste.
Chiner, va. to colour, dye, stuffs, to resemble
Chinese silks, etc. ; a word of hist, origin
(§ 3.^).
+ Chiourme, sf. the crew of a galley,
convicts; introd. in l6th cent, from It.
citirma.
Chiquenaude, sf. a fillip. Origin un-
known.
Chiragre, sf. (Med.) chiraga; from Gr.
Chiromancie, sf. chiromancy; from Gr.
X^ipofiavrda.
Chirurgie, sf. surgery ; from Gr. x^i^povpyia.
— Der. chirurgien (of which the doublet is
sargien).
Chlore, sm. chlorine; from Gr. x^'^P^s- —
Der. chlorique, chlonte, chlorose (a disease
which gives the skin a greenish-yellow tint),
chloroforme (compounded of chlorine and
formic acid ; stt formique).
'f'Choc, sm. a shock, collision; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. cicoco.
f CAocolat, sm. chocolate; in 17th cent.
chocolate, introd. in 1 6th cent, from Sp.
chocolate.
CHCEUR, sm. a chorus, choir ; from L,
chorus. For o = ceu see cueiller. Choeur
is a doublet of chorus.
CHOIR, vn. to fall. O. Fr. chhir, originally
chaer and coder, from L. cadere by chang-
ing (1) c into ch, see § 126; (2) g into
oi, see § 61 ; (3) by losing d, see accO'
bier; (4) by synaeresis of e-oir into oir.
Just as ca(d)ere becomes chioir, ca-
(d)utus* (for partic. in utus see boire)
produced O. Fr. ch6-ut, then chu, and the
fem. ca(d)uta, gave che-ute, then chute,
now a subst., by a change considered under
absoute. — Der. choir, 4choir, d^choir; chute,
xtchute.
CHOISIR, va. to choose. At an earlier period
it signified to see, perceive : in the middle
ages men said de sa tour le guetteur choisit
les ennemis. Choisir, O. Fr. coisir, originally
cosir, Prov. causir, It. causire, is a word of
Germ, origin, der. from Goth. Jcausjan,
to see, examine. — Der. choix (verbal
subst.)
Chol6ra, sm. cholera, a Lat. word der,
from Gr. xoAe'pa. Cholera is a doublet of
colle, coltre. — Der. cholerique.
CH6MER, vn. to be without work; often
written chaumer in i6th cent. : it means pro- ,
perly ' to rest.' Prov. chaume is the time '
when flocks rest. This word is der. from
medieval Lat. cauma, heat of the sun,
the time of day when heat is too great
for work, a word found in sense of
great heat in St. Jerome, Isidore of Se-
ville, and Fortunatus. This Lat. cauma
represents Gr. x"^^"- Fo'^ au = o see
§ 106; for o = ch see § 126. Chomer
is a doublet of calmer, q. v. — Der. chum-
age.
CHOPE,s/ a beer-glass; from Germ. schoppen.
— Der. chopme.
CHOPPER, vn. to stumble ; a word of Germ,
origin, from Germ, schnpfen.
fChoquer, va. to strike, knock. Origin
unknown.
CHOSE, sf. a thing. It. cosa^ from L. causa,
- which first meaning ' a cause ' came in the
^■Xat. of the later Empire to mean 'a thing.'
\ Hyginus uses causa for res ; Pliny says
'quam ob causam' for ' quam ob rem';
the Reichenau Glosses (8th cent.) give us
' rerum = causarum.' We find in the Lex
Longobard ' Quia viri istam causam faciunt,
non autem mulieres.' Causa becomes chose
by changing (1) c into ch see § 126;
(2) au into see § 106. Chose is a doublet
of cause.
CHOU, sm. a cabbage. O. Fr. chol, from L.
caulis. Caulis becomes chol by changing
(l) c into ch, see § 126; (2) au into 0,
see § 106. CAo/ becomes cAo7/ by softening
0/ into ou, see agneau.
\
CHO UCA S — CINI^RA IRE.
8i
CHOUCAS, sm. a daw, jackdaw. See chat-
huant.
+ Choucroute, sf. sour-crout ; corruption
of Germ, sauerkraut, introd. through Alsace.
CHOUETTE, sf. an owl, owlet. See chat-
huant.
CHOYER, va. to pet, cosset. Origin unknown.
CHREME, stn. chrism ; from eccles. L.
ehrisma, Gr. XP^'^A'O- F<^r i = * see
mettre; for loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 8i.
Chrestomathie, sf. a chrestomathy, se-
lection of pieces ; from Gr. xp'?o"''o/id0€£a.
CHRETIEN, adj. christian; from L. chris-
tlanus. For -ianus = -ien . see ancien ;
for i= e see mettre ; for loss of s see
Hist. Gram. p. 8i. Chretien is the doublet
of Swiss cretin, q. v.
CHRETIENTE, sf. Christianity; from L.
christianitatera, which is contrd. regularly
(see § 52) into cliristian'tatem, whence
chreiiente by changing (i) christian into
Chretien (q. v.) ; (2) -atem into -e see
§ 230.
Christianisme, sm. Christianity; fromGr.
XptCTiavtOfjios.
Chrome, sm. chrome ; from Gr. ^pa>ijui.
Chromatique, adj. chromatic ; from Gr.
XpCOfMTlKOS.
Chronique, sf. a chronicle; from L.
chronica. — Der. chroniqueur.
Chronique, adj. chronic ; from L. chron-
icus.
Chronogramme, sm. a chronogram ; from
Gr. xpoJ'os and ypacpeiv.
Chronologie, sf chronology; from Gr.
XpovoKoyia. — Der. chronologique.
Chronomdtre, sm. a chronometer; from
Gr. xp6vos and fxirpov.
Chrysalide, sf. a chrysalis ; from L. chry-
salidem.
Chrysocale, sm. pinchbeck ; a word made
up of two Gr. words xP^^^^s and KaXos.
CHUCHOTER, vn. to whisper ; an onoma-
topoeia ; see § 34. — Der. chuchotement.
! CHUT, interj, hush ! an onomatopoeia ; see
§ 34-
CHUTE, sf. fall ; partic. subst. (see absoute and
§ 188) of choir,q.v.
iChyle, sm. chyle ; from Gr. xw^<5*.
jCI, adv. here. See ici.
plBLE, sf a target. O. Ft. cibe, from O.H.G.
sciba.
Ciboire, sm. a ciborium, p)^x; from L. cibo-
rium.
CIBOULE, sf. a shalot ; from L. caepuUa*.
For p = 6 see abeille and § 1 1 1 ; for u = Ott
see § 90; for ae=-t see § 104.
Cicatrice, sf a scar ; from L. cicatricem.
— Der. cicatrisev.
tCic^rone, sm. a cicerone; introd. from
It. cicerone.
CIDRE, sm. cider. O. Fr. sidre, from L.
sicera, from Gr. a'lKipa. Sieera, contrd.
regularly into sic'ra, became sis'ra by
changing c into s (see amitii) : sis'ra has
regularly intercalated an euphonic dental
between s and r (see ancetre), and be-
comes sisdre, just as lazarus becomes
ladre (laz'rus), or S. Lusor becomes
S. Ludre (Lus'r). Sisdre becomes sidre
(see Hist. Gram. p. 81), then cidre (see
amitie).
CIEL, sm. heaven; from L. coelum, written
celum by the Romans themselves. See
§ 105. For e = e« see arriere.
CIERGE, sm. a wax candle ; from L. cereus,
from cera. For -eua = -ge see § 272 ; for
e = ie see arriere.
tCigale, sf a cicala, grasshopper; from
Prov. cicala, which from L. cicadxila, dim
of cicada.
t Cigarre, sm. a cigar ; introd. from Sp.
cigarro. — Der. cigarette.
CIGOGNE, sf. a stork; from L. ciconia.
For 0=^^ see § 129. For the change of ni
into gn before a vowel see § 244. See
also under aragne. Cigogne is a doublet
of O. Fr. soigne.
CIGUE, sf. hemlock; from L. cicuta. For
o=g see § 129 ; for -uta= -ue see § 201.
CIL, sm. an eyelash, hair of eyebrows ; from
L. cilium. — Der. c//ler (whence O. Fr. d^-
ciRer, now desszV/er).
CI ME, sf. a summit, mountain-top. O. Fr.
cyme, from L. cyma, a summit, in Isidore
of Seville : ' Cjrma est enim summitas ar-
borum.' — Der. cimier (an ornament on the
top of a helmet).
CIMENT, sm. cement ; from L. caementum.
Here ae becomes i as in caepuUa, ci-
boule; caepa, cive ; caepatum*, civet;
1 a e t a , //« ; p a e o n i a , pivoine. ae reduced
to e becomes ie, as in saeclum, siecle ;
graeca, grieche. See § 104. Ciment is
a doublet of cement. — Der. cimenter.
tCimeterre, sm. a scimitar. O. Fr. cimt-
terre, introd. from the East through It.
scimitej^ra.
CIMETIERE, sm. a cemetery; from L.
coemeterium. For oe = « see §§ 105,
64 ; for e = ie see arriere.
CIMIER, sm. a crest. See eime.
Cin6raire, arf/. cinerary ; from L. cinera-
rius. Cineraire is a doublet oi cendriers
G
82
CINGLER — CTVI^RE.
CINGLER, va. to lash, whip; from L.
oingiil^e, to whip with a cingulum.
For regular loss of penult, ii see § 52.
CINGLER, vn. to sail, make sail, O. Fr.
singler, originally sigler, a word of Germ.
origin, from O. Scand. sigla, to sail. Cing-
ler is a doublet of sangler, q. v.
CINNABRE, sm. cinnabar; from L. cinnfi.-
b&ris. For loss of penult, a see § 51.
Cixmaine, sm. cinnamon ; from L. cinna-
mum.
CINQ, num. adj. five; from L. quinque,
written cinque in a 3rd-cent, inscription.
For qu = c see car. — Der. cinqmhme.
CINQUANTE, num. adj. fifty; from L.
quinquaginta. For change of qu into c
see car, and for loss of medial g see
allier. — Der. cinquant'iQxnc, cinquantzine.
CINTRER, va. to arch ; from L. cincturdre*.
For regular loss of u see § 52 ; for
change of ct into t see affete. — Der. cintre
(verbal subst.), decintrer.
Cippe, sm. a cippus ; from L. cippus.
Cippe is a doublet of cep, q, v.
Circoncire, va. to circumcise ; from L.
circumcidere. For -cidere = -cire see
occ'tre. — Der. circoncision.
Circonf6rence, sf. a circumference ; from
L. circumferentia.
Circonflexe, adj. circumflex; from L. cir-
cumflexus.
Circonlocution, sf. circumlocution; from
L. circumlocutionem.
Circonscrire, va. to circumscribe; from
L. circumscribere . — Der. «rco«scnption.
Circonspect, adj. circumspect, cautious;
fromL.circumspectus . — Der. circonspec-
tion.
Circonstance, sf. a circumstance ; from L.
circumstantia. — Der. circonstancier, -iel.
Circonvallation, sf. circumvallation; from
L. circumvallationera, der. from cir-
cumvallare.
Circonvenir, va. to circumvent, deceive ;
from L. circumvenire.
Circonvoisin, adj. neighbouring, adjacent;
compd. of voisin and the prefix circon, from
L. circum.
Circonvolution, sf. circumvolution ; from
L. circumvolutionem*, der. from cir-
cumvolvere.
Circuit, sm. circuit, compass; from L. cir-
cuitus.
Circiilaire,ac//.circular;fromL.circularis.
Circuler, vn. to circulate; from L. circu-
lari. Circuler is a doublet of cercler, q. v.
—Der. circuhtion. J
CIRE, sf. wax; from L. cera. For e = i see
§ 59. — Der. cirii (which is a doublet
of cerat, q. v.), c/rer, -age, -ier.
CIRON, sm. a fleshworm, mite. Origin un-
known.
Cirque, sm. a circus; from L. circus,
Cirre, s?«. a curl, lock (of hair) ; from L.
cirrus.
CISAILLES, sf pi. shears. See ciseau.—
Der. cisailleT.
CISEAU, sm. a chisel. Origin unknown. —
Der. mailles, ciseler (from O. Fr. cisel for
ciseau. See agneau).
CISELER, va. to chisel, carve. See ciseau. —
Der. ciseleuT, -ure.
tCitadelle, ./. a citadel ; from It. citea-
della.
+ Citadin, sm. a citizen ; from It. cittadino.
CITE, sf a city ; from L. citateiu for
civitatem, so written in several inscrip-
tions before the 3rd cent. a.d. For loss of
i (civ'tatem) see §51; for v't = / see
alleger; tor -ateni = -e' see § 230.
Citer, va. to cite; from L. citare. — Der.
citation.
Cit6rieur, adj. hither, hithermost ; from L.
cilerior.
CITERNE, sf a cistern; from L. cisterna.
For loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 81. — Der.
citer nea.u.
Cithare, sf. a cithara, lyre; from L. ci-
thara. Cithare is a doublet of guitare and
O.Fr. cedre.
CITOYEN, sm. a citizen. Prov. ciptadan,
from L. civitadanus*, der. from civi-
tatem. For the change of the first part
of the word, civita- = «V-, see cite; for loss
of medial d see accabler; for suffix yen
see § 194.
CITRIN, adj. citrine ; from L. citrinus.
Citrin is a doublet of sSrin, q. v.
CITRON, sm. a lemon, citron ; from L.
citrum, through a dim. citronem*.
CITROUILLE, sf a pumpkin, gourd; dim.
of O. Fr, citre, which is L. citrum (the
yellow colour of the gourd resembling that
of a lemon).
CIVE, sf a chive ; from L. caepa. For ae
= e = i see § 104 and ciment. For p = v
see § III. — Der. civet (in O.Fr. «W,
properly a stew with chives), civette.
+ Civette, ./. a civet cat; a word of
Eastern origin ; Ar. zibed. The word
came into Fr. through medieval Gr. ^avi-
riov.
CIVI!:RE, sf a handbarrow, litter. Origin
unknown.
CIVIL — CLIN.
83
Civil, adj. civil; from L. civilis. — Der.
civilite, civiliser, civilisation.
Civique, adj. civic; from L. civicus. —
Der. civisme.
CLABAUD, sm. a babbler, liar. Of Germ, ori-
gin. Neth. Happen. — Der. clabander, -age.
CLAIE. sf. a hurdle, screen. O. Fr. cloie,
Prov. cleda, from L. clida*, found in the
Lex Bajuwariorum, tit. Ixxvii, ' Si eum in-
terfecerit, coram testibus in quadrivio in
clida eum levare debet.' The Lat.
clida is of Celt, origin, Kymri clwyd, a.
hurdle. Lat. clida becomes O. Fr. cloie
by loss of medial d (see alouette), and by
i =■ oi (see boire) ; oi in turn becomes ai, see
§ 61, whence claie. — Der. clayon; cloy-
ere (from O. Fr. cloye).
CLAIR, adj. clear, bright; from L. clarus.
For a = az see § 54. — Der. clairet, -iere,
-on; cZarine, -inette; eclaircr, 6clairciT,
clairvoy&nt.
CLAIRIERE, sf. a glade. See clair.
CLAIRON, sm. a clarion (clear-sounding
trumpet). See clair.
CLAIRVOYANT, adj. clear-seeing. See clair.
Der. clairvoyance.
CLAM EUR, sf. clamour, din ; from L.
clamorem. For 6 = eu see § 79.
Claudestin, adj. clandestine ; from L.
clandestinus.
+ Clapet, sm. a valve ; from Germ, klappe.
CLAPIER, sm. a burrow. See clapir.
CLAPIR (SE), vpr. to squat (of rabbits) ; from
L, clepere (se clepere = to hide one-
self). For accented e = i see § 60; for
atonic e = a see amender. — Der. clapicT.
CLAPOTER, vn. to clap, chop, splash. Dim.
of clapper. An onomatopoeia.
CLAQUE, sf. a slap, smack. An onomatopoeia.
— Der. claquer (which is a doublet of
clicker, q. v.), clacquear.
JCLAQUEMURER, va. to immure. Origin
unknown.
CLARIFIER, va. to clarify ; from L. clarifi-
care. See clair. — Der. c/fln)fcation.
CLARINETTE, sf. a clarionet; dim. of
clarine^ See clair.
CLARTE, sf. clearness ; from L. claritatem,
J by regular loss of 1 (see § 52), and by
I -atein = -e' (see § 230).
IjClasse, sf. a class; from L. class is. — Der.
classer, classement, declasser, cZassique
(which is a doublet of glas, q. v.), class-
ification,
ause, sf. a clause, a thing concluded,
closed up ; from L. clausa, partic. of clau-
dere. Clause is a doublet of close, q. v.
Claustral, adj. claustral; from L. claus-
tralis.
CLAVEAU, sm. (Archit.) a keystone. O. Fr.
clavel, from L. clavellus, dim of clavis.
For -ellu8 = -el = -eaM see § 204.
CLAVEAU, sm. the rot, sheep rot. O. Fr. cla-
vel, from L. clavellus ; the lumps formed
in this disease being thought to be like nail-
heads (clavis). — Der. clavelee (from O. Fr.
clavele). .
+ Clavecin, sm. a harpsichord; from It.
clavicembalo.
Clavicule, sf. collar bone; from L. clavi-
cula. Clavicule is a doublet of cheville,
q.v.^
Clavier, sm. a key-chain, key-board (of a
piano) ; from L. claviarius*, from clavis.
In O.Yr.=porte-clef,i.t. 2. key-ring; ap-
plied afterwards to a collection of piano-
keys.
CLEF, sf. a key ; from L. clavis. For a = «
see § 54 ; for v=/see § 142.
C16inatite, sf. clematis; from L. clema-
tidem.
Clement, adj. clement, merciful ; from L.
clementem Der. cUmt.nct, from L.
dementia.
Clepsydre, sf. a clepsydra, water-clock;
from L. clepsydra.
CLERC, sm. a clerk, scholar; from L deri-
cus, Gr. kXtjplkSs, one who belongs to
the Kkripos, or clergy, as opposed to a lay-
man. The prim, sense has been expanded
to that of a man of learning, then a pen-
man, clerk (in all its senses), agent, as in clerc
d'avoue, etc. For loss of i see § 51.
CLERGE, sm. the clerical body; from L.
clericatus, from clericus. For loss of
atonic i see § 52; for c=g see § 129;
for -atus = -e see § 201.
Clerical, adj. clerical; from L. clericalis.
CLICHER, va. to stereotype. O. Fr. cliquer,
a form which shows that clicker is a vari-
ant of cliquer, q. v. : it is also a doublet of
claquer. Similarly in Germ, ab-klitschen,
= clicker, is derived from hlatschen, = cla-
quer. — Der. clicks, clickzgt.
Client, sm. a client, dependent; from L.
client em. — Der. clientele.
CLIGNER, va. to wink ; from L. clinare.
n becomes gn, and undergoes the same
change as nn in grunnire, grogner ;
pinnonem*, pignon.
Climat, sm. climate; from climatem. —
Der. c/tma^erique.
CLIN, sm. a wink; verbal subst. of cligner,
q.v.
G 2
84
CLTNIQUE^-COCHE.
diniqne, adj. clinical, sf. clinical surgery;
from L. clinice, a medical lesson given at
the sick man's bedside.
CLINQUANT, sm. tinsel, Dutch gold-leaf;
abbrev. of O. Fr. phrase or clinquant. Clin-
quer, Neth. klinken, properly means to
make a clinking noise. A like metaphor
is found in Germ., which calls this metal
rauschgold.
CLIQUER, see clicker, of which it is another
form.
CLIQUETER,t;a.to clack, click. Frequent, of
O. Fr. cliquer. An onotnatop. word. — Der.
cliquetis. *
+ Oliver, va. to cleave; from Engl, cleave.
Der. clivige.
Cloaque, sf. a sewer; from L. cloaca.
CLOCHE, sf. a bell ; from Merov. L. clocca.
Origin unknown. For c = ch see § 126.
— Der. clocher, -ette, -eton.
CLOCHER, vn. to halt, limp, hobble. Prov.
clopchar, Gr. x^w^t^Trovs (lame) gave birth,
in the first ages after the fall of the Em-
pire, to a Lat. cloppus. This word is
found in the Glosses of Philoxenus, * clop-
pus =x'''^<^5'>* ^nd the Lex Alamannorum
gives cloppus for claudus, 'ut cloppus
permaneat.' This adj. cloppus has given
the Fr. two important words : —
1. O. Fr. adj. clop (lame), whence the
vn, eloper, lost in mod. Fr., leaving its
pres. partic. in the expression clopin-
clopant, of which the first part is the
verbal subst. of clopiner, another deriv. of
eloper. Sclope is also a compd, of eloper.
2. Through a deriv., cloppicus, came
the vn. cloppicare, which regularly losing
i became clop'care, whence on one
hand the Prov. clopchar, on the other the
Fr. clocher. For c = ch see § 126.
CLOISON, sf. a partition ; from L. closi-
onem*, by transposition of i: see Hist.
Gram, p, 77.
CLOfTRE, sm. a cloister, monastery. O. Fr.
cloistre, from L. claustrum. For au = o
= ot see ahoyer and § 107; for loss of s
see Hist. Gram. p. 81. — Der. cloitrer.
CLOPIN - CLOPANT, adv. loc. haltingly,
' clop-clop.' See clocher.
CLOPORTE, sm. a wood-louse. In 17th
cfent. written clausp6rte, degraded from
clausporc, which should be its true form,
from Lat. clausus porcus (lit. ' a shut-up
pig'). It is hard to say why this name
should be applied to the wood-louse; still the
Wood-louse is* almost everywhere called a
pig. The Lat. called it sometimes asellus,
sometimes porcellio, the \\. porcellino, the
Gr. 6vtaK6s. Similarly in the French pro-
vinces; in Champagne cochon de saint An-
toine, in Dauphin^ ka'ion (a pig), in Anjou
tree{ = truie, a sow). These parallels confirm
the existence of this metaphor, without
however explaining it,
CLORE, va. to close, shut; from L. clau-
d§re. For the regular loss of the penult.
6 see § 51; for au = see alouette ; for
dr = r see § 168, — Der. 6clore, enclore,
enc/os, dMore ; clos, close (whose doublet
is^clause)f closene, c/osier.
CL6TURE, ,/. an enclosure, fence, close.
O, Fr. closture, from L. clausitura*, from
clausus. For regular loss of i see § 52 ;
for au = see alouette ; for loss of s see
Hist, Gram, p. 8i.
CLOU, sm. a nail, O. Fr, do, from L,
clavus. For av = au = = om see
alouette. — Der, clouer, -tier, enclouex, de-
clouer.
CLOYERE, sf. an oyster basket. See date.
+ Club, sm. a club ; from Engl, club. — Der.
dub'xste.
Clyst^re, sm. a clyster; from L, clyster,
Coactif, adj. coactive; from L, coactivus,
Coaguler, va. to curdle, coagulate ; from
L. coagulare. Coaguler is a doublet of
cailler, q. v.
Coaliser, vn. to coalesce. An ill-foi'med
word from L, coalescere, — Der, coaZition,
Coasser, vn. to croak. In l6th cent, co-
axer, from L. coaxare. — Der. coassement.
t Cobalt, sm. cobalt; from Germ, cobalt.
COCAGNE, sf Cockayne. O. Fr. quaigne, in
medieval mythology an imaginary land the
houses of which are made of cakes (cogues
as they were then called, now couque).
COCARDE, /. a cockade. O, Fr, coquarde,
a cock's comb, then a red device in the hat,
like a cock's comb. See coq.
COCASSE, adj. ludicrous. Origin unknown.
COCHE, (i) sf. a boat; from L. concha*,
which from its proper sense of shell, conch,
came to that of a little boat. For nc = c see
coque and Hist. Gram. p. 82. The word
was early appHed to certain public carriages
by the common transfer of words relating
to water-carriage to land-carriage. In Paris
before 1855 some omnibuses were called
gondoles, others galires, thus taking their
names from terms of navigation. Hence
(2) sf a coach, carriage; see above.—
Der. cocher, porte-cocAfere.
COCHE, sf. a tally, notch. Origin unknown.
— Der. decocAer is to shoot an arrow,
COCHE — COLIS.
85
by freeing it from the notch of the arba-
list.
COCHE, sf. a sow. Origin unknown. — Der.
chocon.
fCochenille, sf. cochineal; introd. in
16th cent, from Sp. cochinilla.
COCHER, stn. a coachman. See coche.
COCHET, sm. a cockerel. See coq.
COCHEVIS, sm. the crested lark. Origin
unknown.
COCHON, sm. a pig. See coche.
+ Coco, sm cocoa ; introd. from Port, coquo.
— Der. cocotier.
COCON, sm. a cocoon. See coque.
Coction, sf. a coction, boiling; from L.
coctionem. Coction is a doublet of
cidsson, q. v.
Code, sm. a code; from L. codex.— Der.
corfifier. Code is a doublet of codex.
Codicille, sm. a codicil; from L. codi-
cillus.
CoefiBLCient, sm. a coefEcient ; from co,
L. cum, and efficient from L. efficientem.
Coemption, sf. coemption; from L. co-
emptionem.
Coercition, s/. coercion ; from L. coerci-
t ion em. — Der. coercitii.
CCEUR, sm. the heart; from L. cor. For
O = oeu see cueillir.
COFFRE, sm. a chest, trunk, coffer; from
L. cophinus, a basket, but used for a
coffer in the Capit. de Villis. art. 62 :
' coflnis id est scriniis.' C6ph(i)lius was
first regularly contrd. (see § 51) into
coph'nus ; then ph became /, after a
general Fr. rule. The Romans proncd. ph
and f differently, as we see from Priscian :
•Non tam fixis labris est pronuntianda f,
quomodo ph,' but this shade of difference
was soon effaced, and has entirely dis-
appeared from modern languages. For
pli=/ cp. phasianus, faison, § 146.
Cofnus becomes coffre by changing n
! into r : this permutation of the nasal into
! a liquid is also to be found in ord'nem,
ordre, etc., § 163. Coffre is a doublet
of coffin. — Der. coffrtX, coffrtx, en-
coffrex.
COGNEE, sf. an axe, hatchet. O. Fr. coignee,
from L. cvmeata*, a wedge to cleave
« wood with. First ea became ia (see Hist.
I Gram. p. 66), then cuniata becomes
coignee by (i) ni=^ra (see aragne), (2)
u = o/(see § ioo),(3)-ata = -e'e(see § 201).
jpOGNER, va. to drive in (a nail, wedge).
O. Fr. coigner, from L. cuneare. For
(Hineare = coigner see cognee.
•Cohabiter, vn. to cohabit; from L. co-
habitare. — Der. cohabita.tiox\.
Coh.6rent, a<^'. coherent ; from L. cohae-
rentem.
Cohesion, sf. cohesion; from L. cohae-
sionem.
Cohorte, sf. a cohort ; from L. cohortem.
Cokorte is a doublet of cour.
COHUE, sf. a rout, crowd ; verbal subst. of
cohuer (to cry, hue and cry together). For
the etymology see heur.
COl,fem. coite, quiet, coy, still; from L. quie-
tus. For loss of t see aigu ; for i = oi see
§ 68; for qu = c see car. Coi is a doublet
of quitte, q. v.
COIFFE, sf a headdress, cap ; from L. cofea,
used by Fortunatus. First ea became ia (see
Hist. Gram. p. 66), then cofla becomes
coiffe by attraction of i, which changes o
into oi (see Hist. Gram. p. 77). — Der.
coiffei, -eur, -ure, decoiffer.
COIN, sm. a corner, nook; from L. cuneus.
For eus = tMS see Hist. Gram, p. 189; for
iii= gn see aragne; for \i = oi see § 100,
— Der. Tecoin.
Coincider, vn. to coincide; from L. co-
incidere. — Der. co'incidence,
GOING, sm. a quince. O. Fr. cooing, Prov.
codoing. It. cotogna, from L, cotoneus.
-eus becoming regularly -ius (see Hist.
Gram. p. 66), cotonius produced O. Fr.
cooing, (l) by dropping medial t (see §
117), (2) by changing ui into ng, (3) by
changing o into oi (see Hist. Gram. p. 77).
— Der. co^wasse, -assier.
t Coke, sm. coke ; from Eng. coke.
COL, sm. a neck, of which cou is the softer
form, see agneau ; from L. collum. Col is
a doublet of cou, q. v. — Der. collier, -let,
-lerette, deco/ler, enco/ure, acco/er.
tColback, sm. colback; from Turk.
kolbdk, a furred hat, adopted by certain
French cavalry regiments on their return
from the campaign of Egypt.
Col6optdre, sm. a beetle, adj. coleopterous ;
from Gr. KoKeoTrrepos, sheath-winged.
Colore,./, wrath; from L. cholera, Co-
lere is a doublet of cholera and O. Fr.
colle.
+ Colibri, sm. a humming-bird; introd.
from the American colonies.
COLIFICHET, sm. a trinket. Origin un-
known.
CO LI MACON, sm. a snail. See limapon.
Colique, sf. colic ; from L. colica.
t Colis, sm. a package, more correctly
written coli, from It. collo, the neck.
85
COLLA BORER — COMITS.
Collaborer, va. to work with; from L.
col labor a re. — Dcr. co//a6orateur, -ation.
Collateral, adj. collateral; from L. col la-
teralis*.
Collateur, sm. a collator; from L. colla-
tor.
Collation, sf. a collation ; from L. collatio.
The sense of a light repast comes from
convents, in which the monks made a daily
'collation ' or reading and discussion on Holy
Writ. This conference was followed by a
light meal, which accordingly took the name
of collatio. — Der. collationner.
Colle, sf. paste, glue ; from Gr. nSWa. —
Der. collcr, d^co/Ter, encoder.
Collecte, sf. a collection, collect ; from L.
coUecta * (partic.of colligere). Collecte
is a doublet of cueillette, q. v. — Der. col-
lecteuT.
Collectif, adj. collective; from L. collec-
tivus.
Collection, sf. a collection; from L. col-
lect ion em. — Der. collectionner.
College, sm. a college, high school ; from L.
collegium. — Der. collegizl, collegien.
Colldgue, sm. a colleague ; from L. col-
lega.
Coller, va. to stick, glue, paste. See colle.
COLLERETTE, sf. a collar, frill. See collier.
COLLET, sm. a collar. See co/.— Der. collet-
er, se decolletcT.
COLLIER, sm. a necklace. See cou. — Der.
collerette, dim. of O. Fr. coller for collier.
COLLINE, sf. a little hill, hillock ; from L.
collina, a word used by Roman surveyors.
Columella uses the form collinum.
Collision, sf. a collision; from L. collisi-
onem.
Collocation, sf. a collocation; from L.
coUocationem.
Colloque, sm. a colloquy; from L. col-
loquium.
Colloquer, va. to class, marshall, place;
from L. collocare. Colloquer is a doublet
of coucher, q. v.
Collusion, sf. collusion ; from L. col-
lusionem.
Colljrre, sm. collyrium, eye-salve ; from L.
collyrium.
Colombo, ./. a dove ; from L. columba. —
Der. colombxQi, colombxn.
Colon, sm. a husbandman ; from L. col onus.
—Der. colonie (which is a doublet of O. Fr.
colonge), colonial, coloniser.
+ Colonel, sm. a colonel; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. colonello.
COLONNE, sf. a column ; from L. columna.
For u = o see annoncer ; for mn = nn cp.
Garumna, Garonne, This assimilation
is to be found in Lat., where we have con-
necto for cum-necto, etc. (§ i68). — Dei.
colonn3.de, colonnette.
Colophane, sf. colophony; in l6th cent.
colophone, from L. colophonia, rosin of
Colophon.
Coloquinte, sf colocynth; from L. colo-
cynthis.
Colorer, va. to colour; from L. colorare.
Colorer is a doublet of colorier. — Der.
co/oration.
t Color is, sm. colouring; introd. in 1 6th
cent, from It. colorito. — Der. colorier,
color'isXe.
Colosse, sm. a colossus ; from L. colossus.
— Der. colosszX.
COLPORTER, va. to hawk, peddle; from
col and porter, q. v. The colporteur was
rightly a pedlar with a pack on his shoulders.
— Der. colporteur, colportige.
Colore, sf. (Astron.) colure ; from Gr. k6\ov-
pos, sc. ypafxfifi, properly = ligne colure.
t Colza, sm. colza, rape-seed ; from Flem.
koolsaed.
COMBATTRE, va. to fight, combat ; from
battre (q. v.) and cum. — Der. combat (verbal
subst.).
COMBIEN, adv. how many; from com ( = to
what point), O. Fr. form of comme (q. v.),
and bien. See Hist. Gram. p. i6o.
Combiner, va. to combine; from L. com-
binare. — Der. cow6maison.
COMBLE, sm. top, summit, fulfilment ; from
L. cumulus, which signifies a summit in
several medieval texts. Cura(u)lus, regu-
larly contrd. (see § 51) into cum'lus, be-
comes comble. For u = see annoncer ; for
nil = w&/ see Hist. Gram. p. 72. Comble is
a doublet of combrer.
COMBLER, va. to fill up, fulfil; from L.
cumulare, regularly contrd. (see accointer)
into cum'lare, whence combler. For
letter-changes see comble. Combler is a
doublet of cumuler, q. v.
Combustion, sf. combustion; from L.
combustionem.
Com6d.ie, ^f. a comedy, play ; from L.
comoedia. — Der. comedien.
t Comestible, adj. eatable, edible; in-
trod. in 1 6th cent, from It. comestibile.
Com^tes, sf pi. a comet; from L. co-
metes.
Comice, sm.pl. comitia; from L. comitia.
Com.ique, adj. comic; from L. comicus.
t Comit6, sm. a committee; introd. during
COMMA NDER — COMPA GNE.
87
the Regency from Engl, committee. Comite
is a doublet of comte, q. v.
COMMANDER, va. to command; from L.
commendare (used for 'to order' in the
late Lat.). — Der. commands (verbal subst.),
commandtmtx\\., commandant, commendeur,
commenderie, commandite, rtco^nmander.
COMMANDITE, sf. a joint-stock company.
See commander, — Der. commandittx, com-
manditzire,
COMME, adv. how ; from L. qudmodo.
For loss of the last two syllables see § § 50, 5 1.
For qu = c see car. — Der. comment (compd.
of comme and ent, which is from L. indd).
For i = e see § 71 ; for d = / § 121 : ent is
also found in the word souv-ent, from sub-
inde.
Commemoration, sf. commemoration ;
from L. commemorationem. — Der. com-
memoratxi.
COMMENCER, va. to commence, begin.
It. cominciare, from L. cominitiare *,
compd. of cum and initiare. Co-
min(i)tidre, losing its i regularly (see
§ 52), becomes comin'tiare, which gives
commencer. For -tiare = -cer see agencer ;
for -in = e« see § 72 ; foru = o see annon-
cer. — Der. commencement.
Com.m.ensal, sm. a messmate; from L.
commensalis*, one who lives at the
same table, mensa.
Com.m.ensurable, adj. commensurable ;
from L. cum and mensurabilis.
COMMENT, adv. why, how. See comme.
Com m entaire, sm. a commentary, com-
ment ; from L. commentarius.
Com.m.enter, va. to comment, annotate ;
from L. commentari. — Der. comment-
ateur.
Com.mdre, sf. a gossip, joint godmother.
The Church gives to infants at their bap-
tism a spiritual father and mother, whose
it is to replace the natural parents should
they die, the godfather and godmother
(parrain, marraine) of the child being
counted as its second father and mother (or,
-as would now be said, its co-pere and co-
mere) : eccles. Lat. expressed this double
idea by the words com-pater, com-mater,
whence compere and commere, which origin-
ally signified the two persons who held the
child at the font. For commater = corn-
mere see mere. — Der. commer&ge.
COMMETTRE, va. to commit; from L.
committere. For mittere = mc//re see
mettre. — Der. commis, comm/ssaire, com-
mission.
Com.minatoire, adj. comminatory, threat-
ening; from L. comminatorius * (from
comminationem, which from commi-
nari).
COMMIS, sm. a clerk. See commettre.
Com.mis6ration, sf. commiseration, pity ;
from L. commiserationem.
COMMISSAIRE, sm. a commissary, com-
missioner. See commettre. — Der. commis-
ariat.
COMMISSION, sf. a commission. See com-
mettre. — Der. commissionner, commission-
naire.
Com.mode, (i) adj. commodious; from L.
commodus. (2) sf. a chest of drawers, so
called from its commodiousness.
Com.m.otion, sf. a commotion ; from L.
commotionem.
COMMUER, va. to commute ; from L. com-
mutare. For loss of t see abbaye. — Der.
commwable.
COMMUN, adj. common ; from L. com-
munis. — Der. commune, communzl, com-
mwwisme, communiste.
COMMUNAUT^, sf. a community ; from L.
commvmalitdtem by regularly dropping
i (see § 52) and reduction of com-
m.unal'tatem. into communaute by (i)
sl = au (see agneau); (2) -atem = -e (see
§ 230).
COMMUNIER, va. to communicate ; from L.
communicare (which in eccles. language
signified to receive the Eucharist). For loss
of medial c see affouage. Communier is a
doublet of cornmuniqtierandO.Fr.comenger,
Com.munion, sf communion ; from L.
communionem.
Com.m.uniquer, va. to communicate;
from L. communicare. Communiquer
is a doublet of communier. — Der. commu-
nication, communicatif.
Com.mutation, sf commutation ; from L.
commutationem.
Com.pacte, adj. compact; from L. com-
pactus.
COMPAGNE.s/. a companion; fem. of O.Fr.
compaign. Lat. cum-panis * produced
in Merov. Lat. a subst. com.pdnio*, whence
the O. Fr. compaing (for a = ofj see § 54),
while its accus. com.panionem produced
the form compagnon (for ni = ^n see ci-
gogne). Of these two cases, subjective and
objective, the latter only survives ; see
Hist. Gram. p. 8g sqq. Compaing has gone,
but leaves its fem. compagne and the deriv.
compagnie, and compagnon has taken its
place. The oldest known occurrence of
88
COMPA GNIE — COMPRENDRE.
this word is in the Gcrmano-Lat. Glosses of
the Vatican, which are of the time of Louis
the Debonair, in the phrase, no longer Lat.
but Romance, ' ubi (h)abuisti mansionem
(h)ac nocte, oompagn ?' — Der. compagnie,
compagnon, Accompagner.
COMPAGNIE, sf. a company. See com-
pagru.
COMPAGNON, sm. a companion. See com-
pagne. — Der, compagnonnzge.
COMPARAITRE, vn. to appear; from L.
comporesoere. For parescero '^paraitre
see npparaitre.
Comparer, va. to compare ; from L. com-
parare. Comparer is a doublet of O. Fr.
comprer Der. compair^i%oTi, cowiparable,
cofftparatif.
COMPAROIR, vn. to ' put in an appearance ';
from L. comparere. For e = oi see § 62.
+ Comparse, sf. a figure-dancer; introd.
from It. comparsa.
COMPARTIMENT, sm. a compartment,
panel, division ; from O. Fr. verb compartir,
which from L, compartiri *. Comparti-
ment is derived from compartir, like senti-
ment from sentir.
Comparution, sf. an appearance; corrupted
from L. comparitionem.
COMPAS, sm. a compass, pair of compasses ;
properly measure, equal distance. In O. Fr.
it signified pas egal, pas regulier, from L.
oompassus (see pas). — Der. compasser,
to measure by compass, whence the wider
sense to measure one's acts.
Compassion, sf. compassion ; from L.
compassionem.
Com.patir, vn. to compassionate, pity ; from
L. compatiri*.-Der. cowparible, incompat-
ible (compatibilis*, incompatibilis*).
Com.patriote, sm. a compatriot ; from L
compatriota.
+ Compendium., sm. a compendium,
abridgement ; a Lat. word.
Compenser, va. to compensate, set off,
balance; from L. compensare. — Der.
compensation, recompenser.
COMPARE, sm. a godfather, gossip. See
commere.
Comp6ter, vn. to be due, in the competency
of; from L, competere. — Der. competent,
competence, incompetent, incompetence.
Com.p6titeur, sm. a competitor ; from L.
competitor. — Der. compe'/ition.
Compiler, va. to compile ; from L. com-
pilare. — Der. com/)?7ation.
COMPLAINTE, ./. a complaint ; partic. subst.
of O. Fr. verb complain Jre (see plaindre).
COMPLAIRE, vn. to please, gratify; from
L. complacere. See plaire. — Der. com-
plaisant, complaisznce.
Com.pl6ment, sm. complement, fulness ;
from L. complementum. — Der. comple-
menti'ne.
Complet, adj. complete; from L. comple-
tus. Complete is a doublet of complies,
q. v. — Der. completer.
Complexe, adj. complex; from L. com-
plexus.
Complexion, sf. complexion; from L.
complexionem.
Complice, ( i ) adj. privy to, (2) smf. accom-
plice; from L. compile em. — Der. com-
plicity.
COMPLIES, sf. complines; in eccles. Lat.
completae. For e = i see § 60; for
loss of t see aigu. In liturgical language
this part of the divine office is called the
horae completae, because it completes
the service, which comprehends prime, tierce,
sexte, none and complies, or in liturgical Lat.
prima, tertia, sexta, nona, comple-
torium. Complies is a doublet of complete.
t Compliment, sm. a compHment; in-
trod. in 1 6th cent, from It. complim£nto. —
Der. complimented.
Compliquer, va. to complicate ; from L.
complicare. — Der. complicztion.
COMPLOT, sm. a plot. Origin unknown.
— Der. complotet.
Com.ponction, sf. compunction ; from L.
compunctionem * (strong sorrow at
having offended God).
Comporter, va. to admit of, allow ; from
L. comportare.
COMPOSER, va. to compose ; from L. com-
pausare, compd. of cum and pausare.
For au = o see § 106. — Der. xecomposer,
decomposer, compositeur, com/>osition (L.
compositorem, compositionem).
Composite, adj. composite ; from L. com-
pos it us. Composite is a doublet of com-
pote, q. V.
COMPOSTEUR,sOT. a composing-stick ; from
L. composit6rem. For loss of atonic i
see § 52; for o = eu see § 79. Com-
pGsteur is a doublet of compositeur.
COMPOTE, sf. stewed fruit. O. Fr. com-
poste. It. composta, from L. composita.
Compote is a doublet of composite.
COMPRENDRE, va. to comprehend ; from
L. eomprendere. For the loss of the
penult, e see § 51. — Der. comprehen-
sion (straight from L. comprehen-
sionem).
COMPRESSE—CONDESCENDRE.
89
COMPRESSE,^/: (Med.) a surgical compress;
verbal subst. of O. Fr. verb compresser. See
presser.
Comprimer, va. to compress, repress ; from
L. comprimere.
COMPROMETTRE, va. to compromise;
from L. compromittere. For mittere =
mettre see mettre. — Der. cotnpromis.
COMPTABLE, adj. accountable, responsible.
See compter. — Der, comptabilite.
COMPTER, va. to count, reckon; from L.
computare, by regular loss of u (see
§ 51). — Der. compte (verbal subst., which
is a doublet of compJii), comptMe, compt-
oir, k-compie, decompler, m^compte (verbal
subst. of tnecompter).
Compulser, va. to search, examine ; from
L. compulsare*, to push, then to collect,
gather.
Comput, sm. a computation ; from L. com-
putum. Comput is a doublet of compte.
Der. computet.
Comte, sm. a count; from L, com it em,
by regularly losing the 1 (§ 51). — Der.
com^esse, comte (whose doublet is comiid),
vicomte.
CONCASSER, va. to pound, crush ; from L.
conquassare. See casser.
Concave, ctc^". concave ; from L. concavus.
Conc6der, va. to concede, grant ; from L.
concedere.
Concentrer, va. to concentrate; from con
( = euin) and centre — Der. concentra.tion,
concentrique.
Concept, sm. a concept (philosophical term) ;
from L. conceptus.
Conception, sf. a conception ; from L.
conceptionem.
Concerner, va. to concern, regard ; from
L. concernere *.
+ Concert, sm. a concert; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. concerto.
+ Concert er, va. to rehearse, concert ;
introd. in i6th cent, from It. concertare. —
Der. deconcerter.
Concession, sf. a concession; from L. con-
cession em. — Der. concessionnziie.
i" Concetto, sm. a conceit; an It. word,
properly of brilliant and false thoughts.
CONCEVOIR, va. to conceive ; from L. con-
cipere. In this verb the accent has been
displaced in Low Lat. from concipere to
concip6re ; this -6re has become -oir
regularly, see § 63. For i = e see mettre;
for p = v see § lll.^ — Der. inconcevable.
Conchyliologie, sf. conchology ; from Gr.
tf07X»5A.to and \6yos.
CONCIERGE, smf. a doorkeeper. Origin
unknown.
Concile, sm. a council ; from L. concilium.
Conciliabule, sm. a conventicle ; from L.
conciliabulum.
Concilier, va. to conciliate ; from L. con-
ciliare. — Der. co««7iation, r^con«7/ation.
Concis, adj. concise; from L. concisus
Der. concision.
CONCITOYEN, sm. a fellow-citizen; from
con ( = cum) and citoyen, q. v.
t Conclave, sm. a conclave; from It.
conclave.
Conclure, va. to conclude; from L. con-
cludere. This word, contrd. into con-
clud're regularly (see § 51), changes dr
into r; see § 168.
Conclusion, sf. a conclusion; from L. con-
clusionem.
CONCOMBRE, sm. a cucumber; from L.
cucumerem. This word is contrd. regu-
larly (see § 52) into cucum'rem, and then
undergoes three changes : (i) it intercalates
n, as in laterna, lanterne. Hist. Gram. p. 79.
This intercalation was not uncommon in
Lat., in which we find pinctor, lanterna,
rendere, for pictor, laterna, reddere.
(2) m'r becomes mhr, see absoudre. (3)
u becomes 0, see § 98.
Concorde, sf. concord ; from L. con-
cord i a. — Der. concordeT, concordance,
concordzi.
CONCOURIR, va. (i) to concur, co-operate,
(2) to compete; from L. concvirrere.
See courir.
CONCOURS, sm. (l) concurrence, (2) com-
petition ; from L. concursus. See cours.
Concret, adj. concrete ; from L. concretus.
Concretion, s/. a concretion; from L. con-
cretionem.
Concubine, sf. a concubine ; from L, con-
cub in a. — Der. concubinage.
Concupiscence, sf concupiscence ; from
L. concupiscentia.
Concurrent, sm. a competitor ; from L.
concurrentem. — Der. concurrence.
Concussion, sf. a concussion, extortion ;
from L. concussionem (used in Roman
Law for peculation, extortion). — Der. con-
cussionm.[re.
CONDAMNER, va. to condemn ; from L.
condemnare. — Der. condammtion, con-
dam?ia.hle.
Condenser, va. to condense ; from L. con-
den s a r e . — Der. co«cfe«sation, co«<i!e«sateur,
condensable.
Condescendre, va. to condescend i from
CONDIMENT — CONOR U.
L. condescendere. See descendre. — Der.
condescendant, condescendence.
Condiment, sm. condiment, seasoning ;
from L. condimentum.
Condition, sf. condition; from L. condi-
tion em. — Der. conditionner, conditionnel.
t Condor, sm. a condor ; a word of Ame-
rican origin.
CONDOLEANCE.s/: condolence. See t/o/e'a«ce.
Conducteur, sm. a conductor, guard, guide ;
from L. conductorem.
CONDUIRE, va. to conduct, guide ; from L.
conducere. Conduc(d)re, contrd. regu-
larly (see § 51) into conduc're, becomes
conduire. For u = m» see § 96 ; for cr = r
see benir — Der. conduite (partic. subst.),
conduit, Tcconduire, inconduite.
Cdne, sm. a cone; from L. conus. — Der,
co«ique, conifere.
Confection, sf. construction, making ; from
L. confectionem. — Der. confectionn&x.
Conf6d6rer, va. to confederate; from L.
confoederare. — Der. confederi\.\on.
Confer er, va. to confer, collate ; from L.
confer re Der. conference.
CONFESSOR, va. to confess ; from L. con-
fessari * (frequent, of confiteri ; for its
formation see Hist. Gram. p. 131). — Der.
confesse (verbal subst.), confessenr, con-
fession, cow/essional.
Confidence, sf. a secret, trust; from L.
confidentia. Confidence is a doublet of
confiafice. — Der. confidentiei, confident (L.
confidentem).
CONFIER, va. to trust, confide ; from L.
confldare*. For the changes see /?er. —
Der. co«;?ance (whose doublet is confidence),
confi^nt.
Configuration, sf. configuration, shape;
from L. configurationem.
ConfLns, sm. pi. confines, borders ; from L.
confinis.
CONFIRE, va. to preserve, pickle; from L.
conficere, = to preserve fruit. Conficere
took, especially in medieval Latinity, the
sense of 'making up' a medicine. Thus
we read in the Leges Neapolitanae, * Quod
perveniet ad notitiam suam quod aliquis
confectionarius minus bene conficiat
curiae denuntiabit.* Contrd. regularly
(§ 51) into confic're, it becomes confire
by cr = r, see henir. — Der. confit, confixme,
confiseuT, deconfit, deconfitme.
Confirmer, va. to confirm ; from L. con-
fir mare. — Der. confirmalion.
CONFISEUR, sm. a confectioner. See confire.
■• — Der. confisevie.
Confisquer, va. to confiscate; from L.
confiscare. — Der. co«/?scation.
CONFITURE, sf preserve, jam. See confire.
Conflagration, sf. a conflagration ; from
L. conflagrationem.
CONFLIT, sm. a conflict; from L. con-
fliotus. For ct = ^ see § 168.
Confluer, vn. to flow together, be con-
■ fluent; from L. confluere. — Der. con-
fluent.
CONFONDRE, va. to confound; from L.
confundSre. For loss of § see § 51 ;
for u = see annoncer.
Conformation, sf. conformation; from
L. conformationem.
Conforme, adj. conformable; from L.
conform is. — Der. conformex, conformiie.
tConfort, sm. comfort, Confort-
able, adj. comfortable; introd. from Engl.
comfort, comfortable. Confort is a doublet
of comfort.
CONFORTER, va. to strengthen ; from L.
confortare*. — Der. xkconforter.
Confraternity, sf. a confraternity. See
fraternite.
CONFRERE, sm. a colleague. See frere.-^
Der. confrerie.
CONFRONTER, va. to confront. See front.
— Der. co«/ro«/ation.
Confus, adj. confused; from L. confusus.
— Der. confusion.
CONGE, sm. (l) leave, permission ; (2) leave
of absence ; from L. commeatus = per-
mission, authorization, written commi-
atus in 8th-cent. documents, e. g. in Char-
lemagne's Capitularies, vi. 16 : ' Mulier, si
sinfe comiato viri sui velum in caput suum
miserit.' For commeatus = commiatus
see abreger and agencer. Comiatus
gives Prov. comjat and Fr. conge. For i
■=g see Hist. Gram. pp. 65, 66 ; for -atus
= -e' see § 200; for m=« see changer. —
Der. con^edier.
Congeler, va. to congeal; from L. conge-
lare. — Der. co«^e/ation.
Cong^ndre, adj. congeneric; from L. con-
gener.
Congestion, sf. congestion: from L. con-
gestionem.
Congre, sm. a conger-eel ; from L. con-
grus.
Congregation, sf. a congregation; from
L congregationem.
Congrds, sm. a congress; from L. con-
gressus.
Congru, adj. congruous, suitable; from L.,
congruus. — Der. incongru, incongruiXQ.
CONJECTURE — CONSOR TS.
91
Conjecture, sf. a conjecture; from L.
conjectura. — Der. conjectural.
CoDJoindre, va. to conjoin; from L. con-
jungere. Seejoindre. — Der. conjoint.
Conjonctif, adj. conjunctive ; from L.
conjunctivus. — Der, conjonctWe.
Conjonction, sf. a conjunction ; from L.
conjunctionem.
Conjoncture, sf. a conjuncture; from L.
conjunctura.
Conjugal, adj. conjugal; from L. conju-
galis.
Conjuguer, va. to conjugate; from L.
conjugare. — Der. conjugaison.-
Conjurer, va. to conjure, conspire ; from
L. conjurare. — Der. cow/wration.
CONNAlTRE, va. to know. O. Fr. con-
oistre, from L. cognoscere. Cognos-
c(e)re, regularly contrd. (see § 51) into
cognos're, becomes conoistre. For gn =
n see assener and § 131; for o = oi see
§ 83; for sr = str see ancetre. Conoistre
becomes connaitre. For 11 = nn see en-
nemi ; for oi = a/ see § 1 1 1 ; for loss of s
see Hist. Gram. p. 81. — Der. cowwaissant,
C07i«aissance, co/inaisseur, co««aissement,
cowraaissable, recowwaissable, rtconnaitre,
-recowwaissant, reco««aissance, meconnaitre.
CONNETABLE, sm. the constable. O. Fr.
conestable. It. conestabile, from L. comes
stabuli, count of the stable (a dignitary
of the Roman Empire, transferred to the
Frankish courts). The comes-stabuli, or
as he was soon called in one word, the
commestabiilus, entrusted under the early
kings with the charge of the cavalry, be-
came in the 13th cent, the commander of
the forces generally. Comes-stabuli be-
coming comestabulus, changed after the
8th cent, into conestabulus. A docu-
ment of A. D. 807 has 'com.es stabuli
quem corrupte conestabulus appellamus.*
Comestdb(u)lus, regularly contrd. (see
§ 51) into com.estab'lu8, becomes cone-
stable by the very irregular change of the
medial m into n, see changer. For the
later loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 81.
Connexe, adj. connected; from L. con-
nexus.
Conniver, vn. to connive, wink at ; from
L. connivere. — Der. connivence (L. con-
niventia).
Conque, sf. a conch, shell; from L. con-
:ha.
CONQUERIR, va. to conquer; from L. con-
quirere. For qvdrere =querir see ac-
querir. —Der. conquer&nt., conquQte (strong
partic. subst., for which see absoiite and
quete).
Consacrer, va. to consecrate ; from L.
consecrare.
Consanguin, adj. a relation, cousin (by
the father's side); from L. consanguineus.
Conscience, sf. conscience; from L. con-
scientia Der. conscienc'xeMX.
Conscription, sf. a conscription ; from L.
conscriptionem.
Conscrit, sm. a conscript; from L. con-
scriptus.
Consecration, sf a consecration ; from L.
consecrationem.
Cons6cutif, adj. consecutive ; from L.
consecutivus*, deriv. of consecutum.
CONSEIL, sm. counsel, advice; from L. con-
silium. For i = ei see § 70. — Der.
conseiRer, deco«s«71er.
CONSENTIR, vn. to consent; from L. con-
sent ire. — Der. consenttment.
Consequence, sf. consequence ; from L.
consequentia. — Der. consequent (conse-
quentem), consequemment {for consequent-
ment ; see abondamment), inconsequent, in-
consequence.
CON SERVER, va. to preserve; from L. con-
servare. — Der. conservation, -atoire, con-
serve (verbal subst.), conservatenx .
Consid6rer, va. to consider; from L.
considerare. — Der. considtnCiion, -able,
mconsidere, d6consider6.
Consigner, va. to consign ; from L. con-
signare. — Der. consigne (verbal subst.),
consignation, consignatake.
Consister, vn. to consist (of) ; from L.
consistere. — Der. consistent, -ance.
Consistoire, sm. a consistory ; from L.
consistorium.
CONSOLE, sf a bracket, console. Origin
unknown.
Consoler, va. to console; from L. conso-
lari. — Der, conso/ation, consohh\e, consol-
ateur.
Consolider,va, to consolidate; fromL. con-
solidare. — Der. conso//a?ation,
Consommer, va. to complete, consum-
mate; from L. consummare. — Der. co«-
sommation, consomme, consommatem.
Consomption, sf. a consumption ; from L.
consumptionem.
Consonne, sf. a consonant; from L. con-
sona.
Consonnance, sf a consonance ; from L.
consonnantia.
Consorts, sm. pi. associates; from L, con-*
sortes.
92
CONSO UDE — CONTRASTS,
CONSOUDE, sf. (Bot.) consound, comfrey.
O. Fr. consolde, It. consoUda, from L. con-
solida. For changes see soude.
Conspirer, t/«. to conspire ; from L. con-
spirare. — Der, conspimtion, conspirzttur.
Conspuer, va. to scoff at, spit at ; from L.
conspuere.
Constant, adj. constant; from L. con-
stantem. — Der. Constance, cons/amment.
Constater, va, to ascertain, verify, state ;
formed from L. status. Constater is pro-
perly to describe the actual state of any-
thing.
Constell^, adj. made under influence of
some constellation; from L. constellatus.
Constellation, sf. a constellation; from
L. constellationem.
Consterner, va. to dismay, strike terror;
from L. consternare. — Der. constern-
ation.
Constiper, va. to constipate ; from L.
constipare — Der. constipa.tion.
Constituer, va. to constitute; from L.
const ituere. — Der. constitution, constitu-
tionnel, cons/Z/wtionalit^, constituent, consti-
tutif.
Constricteur, adj. constrictive ; from L.
constrictor. — Der. constriction.
Construction, sf. a construction ; from L.
constructionem.
Construire, va. to construct; from L.
construere.
Consul, sm. a consul; from L. consul. —
Der. consuht, consuhive.
Consulter, va. to consult; from L. con-
sultare. — Der. consulte (verbal subst.),
consultant, consulta.tion, consultztii.
Consumer, va. to consume ; from L.
consumere.
Contact, sm. contact; from L. contactus.
Contagion, sf. contagion; from L. con-
tagionem. — Der. contagieux (L. conta-
giosus).
CONTE, sm. a tale, narrative. See conter.
Contempler, va. to contemplate ; from L.
contemplari. — Der. contemplation, con-
temphteuT, contemphtif.
Contemporain, adj. contemporary ; from
L. contemporaneus.
Contempteur, sm. a contemner, scorner ;
from L. contemptor.
Contenance, sf. capacity, extent, bearing.
See contenir.
Contenir, va. to contain, hold; from L.
contenire. For i = e see mettre ; for e
= i see § 58. — Der. contemnt, conten&nce,
dicontensinccT.
Content, adj. content ; 'from L. contentus.
— Der. contentCT, m&contenter, content-
ement.
Contentieux, adj. contentious; from L.
contentiosus.
Contention, sf. a contention ; from L.
contentionem.
CONTER, va. to tell, narrate. Prov. contar,
from L. cozaputaxe, which meant first to
compute, count, then to enumerate, lastly
to relate, recount. The correctness of this
etymology is proved by the fact that It. con-
tare and Sp. contar, mean both to count
and to recount ; so also Germ, erzahlen (to
relate) is derived from zaklen (to count).
Comp(u)t^e, contrd. regularly (see
§ 52) into compt'are, becomes conter.
For va. = n see changer ; for pt = / see
§ 168. Co«/«r is a doublet of compter, q. v.
— Der. conte (verbal subst.), conteai, ra-
conter.
Contester, va. to contest, dispute ; from L.
contestari. — Der. conteste (verbal subst.),
coM^cs/ation, contestsble.
Contexte,s;«. context; from L. contextus.
Contigu, adj. contiguous; from L. con-
tiguus.
Continent, adj. continent; sm. a continent;
from L. continentem. — Der. continence.
Contingent, adj. contingent; from L.
contingent em. — Der. contingence.
Continu, adj. continuous ; from L. con-
tinuus. — Der. continuity, co«/j«ttellement,
cotitinuex, continuation, discontinue!.
Contondant, adj. contusing, blunt; frpm
L. contundentem.
Contorsion, sf. contortion, twist ; from L.
contorsionem.
Contoumer, va. to give a contour to, to
twist. See tourner. — Der. contour (verbal
subst. ; see tour.)
Contractor, va. to contract; from L. con-
tractare*. — Der. contraction.
Contradicteur, sm. a contradicter, legal
adversary; from L. contradictorem.— ■
Der. contradiction (L. contradictionem);i
contradictioie (L. contradictorius),
CONTRAINDRE, va. to constrain ; from
constringere. For loss of s see abh
for -iagere = -eindre see astreindre;
eindre = aindre see § 63. — Der. contrain\
(partic. subst.).
Contraire, adj. contrary ; from L. contra
rius. — Der. contrarier, contrariety.
tContraste, sm. a contrast; introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. contrasto. — Der. con-
trastex.
CONTRA T — CONVOITISE.
93
Contrat, sm. a contract, agreement. O. Fr.
contract, from L, contractus.- — Contrat is
a doublet of contracte.
Contravention, sf. contravention; from
L. contraventionem*.
Contre, prep, against; from L. contra. —
Der. encontre.
tContrebande, sf. smuggling, contra-
band ; introd. in i6th cent, from It. contra-
bando. — Der. contrebandier.
CONTRECARRER, va. to thwart, cross. See
'contre and carrer.
CONTRE-DANSE, sf. a quadrille, country-
dance. See danse.
CONTREDIRE, va. to contradict. See con-
tre ind dire.
CONTRSe, sf. a country. It. contrada, from
L. contrata*, properly the country before,
or against you, contra. We find the
word in the Leges Sicil. 3. 38, a medieval
document : ' Statuimus, ut in utraque con-
trata, tam in terris domanii nostri quam
in baronum,' etc. Just as contrata is
from contra, so the Germ, gegend is
from the prep, gegen. For ata = ee see
§ 201.
CONTREFACON, sf. counterfeit, forgery.
See contre and fa f on.
CONTREFAIRE, va. to counterfeit, forge.
See contre zndfaire. — Der. contrefah.
CONTREMANDER, va. to countermand.
See contre and mander.
CONTRE-PARTIE, sf. a counterpart. See
partie.
CONTRE-PIED, sm. a back-scent (in hunting),
the contrary. See pied.
CONTRE-POIDS, sm. a counterpoise. See
contre and poids.
CONTRE-POINT, sm. counterpoint. See
contre and point.
CONTRE-TEMPS, sm. a contretemps, mis-
chance. See contre and temps.
CONTREVENIR, vn. to offend, transgress.
See contre and venir.
CONTREVENT, sm. an outside shutter. See
contre and vent.
Contribuer, va. to contribute; from L.
contribuere . — Der. contribu2\At, contribu-
tion (L. contributionem).
Contrister, va. to sadden; from L. con-
tristare.
Contrit, adj. contrite; from L. contritus.
— Der.^con/nVion.
CONTROLE, sm. a register, counter-roll.
10. Fr. contre-role is a duplicate register, used
to verify the official or first roll. — Der.
controkr, contrdkni.
CONTROUVER, va. to invent, fabricate.
See trouver.
Controverse, sf. a controversy ; from L.
controversia. — Der. controversiste.
Contumax, adj. contumacious; from L.
contumax.- — Der. contumace.
Contus, adj. bruised; from L. contusus.
Contusion, sf. a contusion; from L. con-
tusionem.
CONVAINCRE, va. to convince; from L.
convincere. For the permutations in
this -word see vaincre.
Convalescent, adj. convalescent ; from
L. convalescentem. — Der. convalesce7ice.
CONVENIR, vn. to agree; from L. con-
venire. — Der. convenu, -able,-ance(L.con-
venientia), deconvenue.
Convention, ./. a convention, agreement;
from L. conventionem. — Der. conven-
tionnel.
Conventuel, adj. conventual; from L.
conventualis from conventus.
Converger, va. to converge ; from L. con-
vergere*. — Der. convergent, convergence.
Convers, adj. lay, serving (of monastic ser-
vants) ; from L. conversus.
Converser, vn. to discourse, converse ; from
L. conversari, to live with one, thence to
converse. — Der. conversation.
Conversion, sf. a conversion ; from L.
conversionem.
CONVERTIR, va. to convert ; from L. con-
vertere. For the displacement of the Lat.
accent see accourir and concevoir ; for e = t
see § 59. — Der. convertible.
Convexe, adj. convex, from L. convexus.
— Der. convexWe.
Conviction, sf. " a conviction ; from L.
convictionem.
CONVIER, va. to invite. It. convitare, from
L. convitare*, formed from con and a
radical vitare*, found also in invitare.
For loss of t see § 1 1 7.
Convive, smf. a guest ; from L. conviva.
Convocation, ^. convocation ; from L.
convocationem.
CONVOI, sm. a funeral procession, convoy.
See convoyer.
CONVOITER, va. to covet. O. Fr. covoiter.
It. cupitare, from L. cupiditare, deriv. of
cupitum, partie. of cupere, by the ordinary
formation of freq. verbs. Cupitare be-
comes O. Fr. covoiter, thence mod, Fr.
convoiter. For u = see annoncer ; for
insertion of n see concombre ; for p = 6
see § III; fori = 01 see § 68.
CONVOITISE, sf. covetousness, lust. O.Fr.
94
CONVOLER — CORDONNIER,
covoitise. Cat. cobdicia, It. cupidizia, from
L. oupiditia*, a Low Lat. form for cupi-
ditas. ' Qui cupiditia aestuant,' says Rathe-
riijs Vero : whence covoitise, then convoitise.
For u = see annoncer ; for addition of n
see concombre ; for p = 6 see § III; for
the unusual hardening of d into t see § I2i;
for ti = soft s see agencer; for i = oi see
§ 68.
Convoler, 't^i. to marry again; from L.
convolare.
Convoquer, va. to convoke; from L.
convocare.
COiNVOYER, va. to escort, convoy. O. Fr.
voier, from L. conviare*. For i = oi see
§ 68. — Der. convoi (verbal subst.)
Convulsion, sf. a convulsion; from L.
convulsionem. — Der. convulsif, convul-
sionnaire.
Cooperer, va. to cooperate, concur; from
L. cooperari. — Der. cooperation, -ateur,
-atif.
Coordonner, va. to arrange, dispose. See
ordonner.
COPEAU, sm. a chip. Origin unknown.
Copie, sf. a copy; from L. copia, properly
abundance, reproduction ; to multiply a
MS. (facere copiam) by frequently writ-
ing it out. Hence the restricted sense of
copia, for the reproduction or copying of a
document. — Der. copiste, copier.
Copieux, adj, copious; from L. copiosus.
Copnle, sf. a copula; from L. copula. —
Der. copuhtiL
COQ, sm. a cock. O. Fr. coc, from L.
coccvun*, a cock, in the Germ. Laws.
*Si quis coccum aut gallinam furaverit,'
says the Lex Salica (vii. i6). Coccum
is onomatop. from the crowing of the bird.
— Der. cochet, cocarde (coxscomb), coquet
(formerly a little cock, whence the adj.
coquet, meaning as vain as a little cock),
coyuelicot (in O. Fr. co juelicoq = cog : this
word now means the corn-poppy, the flower
of which is red like a cock's comb. The origin
of the word coquelicot, is onomatop,, from
the crowing of the cock.)
COQUE, sf. a shell ; from L. concha. Con-
clia becomes coque, as conchylium,
coquille. This change of nc into c may be
seen in carbunculus, escarboucle ; of nc
into s in domincella, demoiselle ; domin-
cellus, damoiseau. For ch. — c = q see
Hist. Gram. p. 63. Coque is a doublet of
conque, coche.
COQyECIGRUE, sf fiddle-faddle, idle tales.
Origin unknown.
COQUELICOT, sm. the wild poppy. See coq.
COQUELUCHE, sf. a hood. Origin un-
known.
COQUET, adj. coquettish. See coq. — Der. co-
quetex, -terie.
COQUILLE, sf a shell; from L. conchylixim.
For the changes of the letters see coqtie. —
Der. coquilhge, -ier.
COQUIN, sm. a scoundrel, rogue. Origin un-
known. — Der. coyj^merie.
COR, sm. (i) a corn (on the feet, etc.);
(1) a horn, bugle ; from L. comu.
For m = r see § 163. — Der. comer, comet
(a little horn, then a horn-shaped roll of j
paper).
CORAIL, sm. coral ; from L. corallium.
For the changes of letters see ail. — Der,
cora/lin.
CORBEAU, sm. a raven, corbie. ©. Fr. cor-
bel, from L. corvellus, dim. of corvus.
For the extension of sense see § 13.
For v = b see § 140; for -e\hx& — -eau
see agneau. — Der. encor6e/lement (from
O. Fr, corbel).
CORBEILLE, sf. a basket ; from L, corbi-
cula. For -icula = -«7/e see § 257, — Der.
cor6illon.
Corbillard, sm. a coach, hearse ; a word 1
of hist, origin (§ 33), Corbillard, O, Fr. '
corbeillard was used in the 17th cent, for
the coach which, plied between Paris and
Corbeil; Menage speaks of it as of a word
much used in his day : ' Corbillart. On
appelle ainsi le coche de Corbeil a Paris;
duquel lieu de Corbeil il a ete appele Cor-
billart, comme le Melunois de Melun.' Cor-
billard towards the end of the 1 7th cent,
took the sense of a great show carriage, a
wedding coach ; its present sense dates
only from the i8th cent.
CORDE, sf. a cord ; from L. chorda. For
ch = c see Hist, Gram. p. 63. — Der. corrfeau
(O. Fr. cordel, which in the older form has
given the deriv. cor^elle, corrfclier, cordeler, j
cordeWere), cor der, cordage, cordon, cordier, ^
corderie.
Cordial, adj. cordial; from L, cordiale*,
deriv, from cordis, cor. — Der. cordiality,
cordialement.
CORDON, sm. a string, twist. See corde. —
Der, corrfonnerie, cordonnet.
CORDONNIER, sm. a shoemaker, cordwainer. '
O. Fr. cordouanier, properly one who works '
with cordouan {Cordovan leather for shoes).
Cp, the word maroquin, which means Mo-
rocco leather, etc. Similarly It. cordovaniere
is from Cordova.
CORIA CE — COR VSE.
95
Coriace, adj. tough, leathery ; from L. cor-
iaceus*, from corium.
Coriandre, sf. coriander ; from L. corian-
drum,
CORME, sf. the service-apple. Origin un-
known. — Der. Cormier.
CORMORAN, sm. a cormorant; corruption
of cormaran, which form, the more regular
one, is still used by fishermen. Catal. corb-
mari. Port, corvomarinho, from L. corvns-
marinus. The Reichenau Glosses (8th
cent.) have ' Mergulus = corvus marinus.'
As for the transformation of corvus mari-
nus into cor-maran by changing in into
an, as in sine, sans, lingua, langue, etc.,
see amande.
+ Cornac, sm. an elephant-driver, a Hindu
word.
+ Cornaline, sf. a corneHan ; introd. from
It. cornalina.
CORNE, sf. a horn ; from L. cornua, plural
of cornu, whence cor, q. v. — Der. come,
cornee, corwouille, cornemuse (see muse),
ecorner, racor«ir, corwichon.
CORNEILLE, sf. a rook, crow ; from L. cor-
nicula, dim. of comicem. For -icula =
-eille see § 257.
CORNEMUSE, sf a bagpipe. See come and
muse.
CORNET, sm. a horn, cornet. See cor. —
Der. cor«ette.
•f Corniche, sf. a cornice. O. Fr. cornice,
introd. from It, corniccio.
CORNICHON, sm. prep, a little horn, then a
little horn-shaped cucumber, gherkin. See
come.
CORNOUILLE, sf. a cornel-berry. See corne.
— Der. cornouilltx.
CORNU, adj. horned ; from L. comutus.
For -utus = -u see § 201. — Der. cornue, bis-
cornu.
Corollaire, sm. a corollary; from L. co-
rollarium, lit. a little crown, i.e. a mark
indicating the deduction from the proposition.
CoroUe, sf. a corolla ; from L. corolla.
Corporation, sf. a corporation ; from L.
corporationem* (from corporatus*,
which from corpus).
Corporel, flc?/. corporal ; from L. corporalis.
CORPS, sm. a body ; from L. corpus. — Der.
corset (q. v.), corsage, corselet.
Corpulence, sf corpulence; from L. cor-
pulentia
Correct, adj. correct; from L, correctus.
— Der. correc^eur, correction, corrects.
Corr61atif, adj. correlative. See relatif
Correlation, sf. correlation. See relation.
CORRESPONDRE, va. to correspond, answer;
from L. correspondere *, for correspon-
dere (from cum and respondere). For
loss of penult, e see § 51. — Der. corre-
spondant, correspondence.
t Corridor, sm. a corridor; introd. in
16th cent, from It. corridore.
Corriger, va. to correct; from L, cor-
rigere. — Der. corrigible, incorWg-ible.
Corroborer, va. to corroborate, confirm ;
from L. corroborare. — Der. corroftoratif,
corroboration.
Corroder, va. to corrode; from L. corro-
dere.
CORROMPRE, va. to corrupt ; from L. cor-
rumpere. — For the changes see rompre.
Corrosif, adj. corrosive; from L. corro-
sivus.
Corrosion, sf. corrosion; from L. corro-
sionem.
CORROYER, va. to curry (leather) , deriv. of
prepared skin. Corroi, O. Fr. conroi, Low
L. conredum is compd, of cum and
redum (arrangement, preparation), a word
of Germ, origin, Flem. reden, Goth, raidjan.
— Der. corrqyeur.
Corrupteur, sm. a corrupter ; from L. cor-
ruptorem.
Corruption, sf. corruption ; from L. cor-
ruptionem.
Corruptible, adj. corruptible ; from L.
cor ruptib ills — Der. incorruptible.
CORSAGE, sm. bust, shape, waist. See corps.
tCorsaire, sm. a corsair; from Prov.
corsari, one who makes the corsa, the
course. See course. Corsaire is a doublet
of coursier.
CORSELET, sm. a corset. See corps.
CORSET, sm. a corset, stays. See corps :
also for the change of sense see § 15.
+ Cort6ge, sm. a procession, cortege ; in-
trod. from It. corteggio.
CORVEE, sf. statute-labour, fatigue-duty,
drudgery ; in 8th cent, corvada, in Charle-
magne's Capitularies, from L. corrogata*,
lit. work done by command. — Der. corve-
able. The most interesting philological pheno-
menon presented by this word is the inter-
calation of a V which had no existence in
Latin. This intercalation was thus effected :
the medial g disappeared (see allier), and
the word became corro-ata, whence a
hiatus between the o and the a. Now in
this case the Lat. often intercalates v, as
from plu-ere comes plu-v-ia and not
plu-ia ; from apyuos, argi-v-us, not
argi-us; from viduus, vidu-v-ium, not
96
COR VETTE^ CO UCHER,
vidu-ium; from fluere, flu-v-ius, not
flu-ius. This tendency is carried on in
Fr. : thus from pluere comes not //^w-o/r,
but pleu-v-oir ; from paeonia comes pi-v-
oine, not pi-oine; and this intercalation is
even extended to words which originally had
no hiatus, but in which the medial consonant
has been ejected, thus making room for an
euphonic v: thus from gra(d)ire comes
gra-ire,gra-v-ir; from gla(d)ius, gla-ius,
glai-v-e; from imbla(d)are*, embla-are,
embla-v-er ; from ipo(t)eTe, po-ere, pou-v-
oir ; from par a(d) i su s, ^ara-«s, />ar-i/-is;
from corro(g)ata, corro-ata, corro-v-
ata, which leads us to the Carlovingian
form cofrvada, Fr. corv6e. For the changes
from corrSvata to corvada, by the loss
of 6, see § 52; for -ata = -a(/a=-^e see
4 201.
The Fr. has even applied this intercala-
tion to a foreign word, croate, in order to
destroy the hiatus : the 1 6th and 1 7th cen-
turies did not S3.y croate hut cra-v-ate ; — Un
cheval cravate ; S'enroler dans une coni-
pagnie de cravates: La crainte des
embuches des Cravates (says Voiture) leur
donne Valarme. Hence the name of the
regiment Royal-cravate, which simply =
Royal-croate. Hence also the common
subst. cravate, a piece of light material
worn round the neck originally by the first
Croatians who entered the French service,
came to be called by the name of those
who wore it.
^Corvette, sf. a corvette; introd. from
Port, corveia.
Coryph6e, sm. a corypheus, leader ; from
Gr. KopvcpaTos,
Cosin6tique, adj. cosmetic; from Gr.
KoapLrjTiKos.
Cosmogonie, sf. a cosmogony; from Gr.
Koafxoyovia.
Cosmographie, sf. cosmography ; from
Gr. KOGfxoypa(pla.
Cosmologie, sf. cosmology ; from Gr. ko<t-
fioKoyia.
Cosmopolite, am. a cosmopolitan; from
Gr. KocrfioTroXlrrjs.
COSSE, sf, a pod, shell, husk. Origin un-
known.-^— Der. ecosser.
+ Costume, sm. dress, garb, costume; from
It. costume. Costume is a doublet of cou-
tume, q. V.
COTE, sf. a quota, share. See coter. — Der.
coriser, corisation.
COTE, s/". a rib, slope (of a hill), shore, coast.
O. Fr. coste, from L. costa. For loss of 8
see Hist. Gram. p. 81. — Der. c(5/oyer, c«/ier,
co/eau ; co/elette (deriv. of cotelle, a little
cote, rib).
COTE, sm. a side. O. Fr. cost4. It. costato,
from L. costatvun, used in medieval Lat.
For -atum = -e see § 201 ; for loss of s
see Hist. Gram, p. 81.
COTEAU, sm. a slope, hill-side. See cdte.
COTELETTE, sf. a cutlet. See cote.
COTER, va. to number, quote; from L.
quotare* (to note the price of a thing,
deriv. of quotum). For qu = c see car.
— Der. cote (verbal subst.).
COTERIE, sf. a coterie, set. Origin un-
known.
Cothume, sm. a buskin ; from L. cothur-
nus.
COTIER, adj. coasting. See cote.
COTILLON, sm. a cotillon, petticoat. See
cotte.
COTIR, va. to bruise. Origin unknown.
COTISER, va. to assess, rate. See cote,
+ Co ton, sm. cotton, a word of Oriental
origin, Ar. qoton. — Der. co/o«neux, coton-
nade, cotonniei.
COTOYER, va. to coast, go by the side
(of one). See cote.
COTRET, sm. a short fagot. Origin un-
known.
COTTE, sf. a coat, petticoat. O.Fr. cote,
a word of Germ, origin, O. H. G. kott. —
Der. corillon (a little cotille, deriv. oi cotte).
Cotyledon, sm. a cotyledon; from L.
cotyledon.
COU, sm. a neck. See col, whose doublet it is.
COUARD, adj. cowardly, properly one who
drops his tail ; from O. Fr. coue. In heraldic
language a lion couard is one with his
tail between his legs. Animals which,
when afraid, drop their tails are called
couards, whence the word takes the sense
of timid, cowardly. O. Fr. coue is from
L. Cauda. For au = 0M, and for loss of
medial d, see alouette. The It. codardo,
deriv. of coda, confirms this derivation. —
Der. couardise.
COUCHER, vn. to lie down. O. Fr. colcher.
It. colcare, from L. coUocare (so used in
Suetonius, Caligula, 24). Coll(6)ctoe
regularly losing its o (see § 52), becomes
colcare, a form found in the Lex Salica
(tit. 60) : ' Et si tunc . . . legem distulerint,
sole colcato' ( = du soleil couche). Col-
care becomes coucher. For ol = o« see
agneau; for c = ch see § 126. Coucher
is a doublet of colloquer, q. v. — Der.
couche (verbal subst.), coucher, couch-
COUCOU — COUR.
97
ette, couch&nt, zccoucJier (q. v.), de-
coucher.
COUCOU, sm. the cuckoo ; from L. cucii-
lus. For u = OM see § 90; for \il = ow
see agneau. Coucou is a doublet of cocu.
COUDE, SOT. the elbow; from L.' cubitus.
Ciibitus becomes cub'tus by the re-
gular loss of i (see § 51), then changes bt
into d, see accouder, and u into ou, see
§ 90. — Der. cotidee, coudoyer.
COUDRE, sm. a nut-tree. O. Fr. coldre,
from L. corylus. Corylus, regularly
contrd. (§51) into cor'lus, has had its 1
transposed (see sangloter), arud becomes
col'rus. (The word colrina is to be seen in
a 9th-cent. document.) Col'rus becomes
O. Fr. coldre by regularly changing Ir into
Idr, see Hist. Gram. p. 73, whence coudre
by softening ol into ou, see agneau. — Der.
cowcfraie, coudr'itr.
COUDRE, va. to sew. O. Fr. cousdre, from
L. consuere ; written cosere as early
as the 8th cent. By the very regular
transformation of ns into s, consuere
became cosuere, see aim ; then the diph-
thong ue was simplified into e, a change
not rare in Lat., Cicero using mortus for
mortuus, and the Appendix ad Probum
having febrarius for februarius. Ada-
mantinus Martyr says expressly ' batuali
quae vulgo batalia dicuntur.'
Cosere, accented on the first syllable,
becomes cos're (see § 51). Now s and r
cannot stand together (see under ancetre),
and consequently when they come together
by the dropping of a Lat. vowel, an eu-
phonic letter is intercalated, sometimes t
sometimes d : thus cos're become cos-d-re,
and the o becoming a diphthong ou (see
affouage) the word becomes cousdre; this
loses its s (see Hist. Gram. p. 81), and then
presents its modern form coudre.
COUENNE, s/. rind, skin. It. cotenna, from
L. cutenna*, der. from cutis. For loss
of t see § 117; for u = OM see § 90.
COUETTE, sf. a feather bed. O. Fr. coute,
originally coulte, from L. culcita. Culcita,
contrd. regularly (§ 51) into culc'ta, then
into cul'ta (see affete), becomes couette,
by changing u into ou, see § 90.
POULER, vn. to run, flow ; from L. colare
properly to filter, then to run. For o = ow
see affouage. — Der, couhge, coulee, couloir,
ecouler, decotder.
OULEUR, sf. colour; from L. colorem
For accented o = eu see § 79 ; for
atonic o = om see § 76.
COULEUVRE, sf. an adder; from L.coltlbra.
For o = OM see § 76 ; for u = eu see beugler;
for b = f see avant and §11 3. — Der. couleu-
irine (a long and slender piece of ordnance).
COULIS, adj. drafty (of wind) ; now re-
stricted to a few special phrases, as vent coulis,
etc., but in O. Fr. signifying generally run-
ning, gliding. O. Fr. colels, Prov. cola-
ditz, represents L. colaticus*, deriv. of
colare. For loss of t see § 117. — Der.
coulis (sm.), coulisse.
COULISSE, sf. a groove, slide. See couler.
COULOIR,sm. a strainer, a passage. See couler.
COUP, sm. a blow, stroke. O.Fr. colp. It. colpo,
from L. colpus, found in the Germanic
Laws : ' Si quis voluerit alterum occidere et
colpus ei fallerit.' (Lex Salica, tit. 19.)
Colpus is a contrd, form of colapus,
found in the Lex Alamannorum, For the
regular loss of penult, a see § 5.1. Col-
apus in its turn is a secondary form of
Lat. colapbus, by a change not unusual
in popular Lat, of ph. into p: thus at
Rome men said stropa, ampora, for
stropha, amphora, as an old Lat. gram-
marian tells us. For change of O. Fr. colp
into coup see agneau. — "Dex.coupex (properly
to give a blow with a cutting instrument).
COUP ABLE, adj. culpable ; from L. culpa-
bilis. For ul = om see agneau ; for -abilis
= -able see affable.
COUPE, sf cutting, felling. Verbal subst.
of couper.
COUPE, sf. a cup, vase; from L. cuppa.
For u = OM see § 90, — Der. soncoupe (for
sous-coupe), coupeWe.
COUPER, va. to cut. See coup.— Der. coupe,
coupe, coupeuT, couperet, coupxxxe, coupon,
decouper, entrecouper.
+ Couperose, (l) ac^", blotched, pimpled;
introd. from It. copparosa. — Der. cou-
peros6. (2) sf. copperas.
COUPLE, sf a couple ; from L. c6piila, by
the regular loss of penult. u(§ 51), and by
change of o into ou, see § 76. Couple
is a doublet of copule, q. v. — Der. coupler,
decoupler, couplet (that which is united,
coupled, a verse).
COUPLET, sm. a couplet (of lines), verse.
See couple.
tCoupole, s/". a cupola; from It. cupola.
Coupole is a doublet of cuptde.
COUR, sf a court, yard. O. Fr . court, originally
cort, from L, cobortem, a yard, thence a
farm, in Palladius ; also in Varro, who tells
us that the Roman peasants said cortem :
' Nam cortes quidem audimus vulgo, sed
H
98-
barbare dici.' This oortem was succeeded
by the form ourtem, used of the country-
house of a Prankish lord, also of his house-
hold (officers, friends, servants), and lastly
his court of justice holden in his name.
The Lex Alamannorum has anlong its
, headings the following : • De eo qui in
curte Regis hominem occiderit,' an ex-
ample of the word in the sense of a prince's
court. Synesius Confl. gives us an instance
of it in the sense of a judicial court :
♦Ad placitum sive ad curtem veniens.'
Curtem becomes court by change of u
into ou (see § 90). — Der. courtois (from
O.Fr. court).
COURAGE, sm. courage. O.Fr. corage,
Prov. coratge, from L. coraticum*, deriv.
of cor. For -aticwod'^-age see § 248 ; for
o = ou see § 76. — Der. couragenx, d^-
couragGT, encourager.
GOURDE, sf. a curve, adj. crooked; from
L. ctorvus. For vl = ou see § 90; for
v = 6 see § 140. — Der. courber, courhxxxt
(whose doublet is courbature), courbette,
recourber.
COURGE, sf. a gourd. Origin unknown.
COURIR, vn, to run; from L. currere.
For the changes see accourir. Courir is a
doublet of O. Fr. courre. — Der. cowrant,
courenr, courrier.
COURONNE, sf. a crown ; from L. c6r6na.
For o = ou see § 76 ; for n = nn see
ennetni. — Der. couronner, couronnement.
COURRE, va. to hunt. See accourir. — Der.
courrier.
COURRIER, sm. a courier. See courre.
COURROIE, sf. a strap. It. corregia, from
L. corrigia. For loss of medial g see
allier ; for i = oi see boire.
COURROUX, sm. wrath. Besides this word,
O. Fr. had a form corrot, answering to the
Prov. corroptz. It. corrotto, which from L.
corruptum*, properly ruin, overthrow,
dejection, then indignation, lastly wrath.
For 11 = ou see § 90; for pt = /see Hist.
Gram. p. 76. The modern form courroux
is derived from courroucer, which in turn
is from L. corruptiare*, deriv. of cor-
ruptus. For o = ou see § 76 ; for u = ou
see § 90; for pt = / see Hist. Gram. p. 76;
for -tiaxe = -cer see agencer. The Prov.
corropt and It. corrotto (in It. tt always =
pt, as in ca///fO = captivus,scf///o = scrip-
tus) confirms this etymology.
COURS, sm. course ; from L. cursus. For
u = 0K see § 90.
COURSE, sf running, coursing ; from L. cursa.
COURAGE — COUTEA U.
— Der. coursiCT (whose doublet is corsaire,
q. v.).
COURT, adj. short ; from L. ctirtus. For
\i = ou see § 90. — Der. ^courttt, court-
aud, Accourcn, Tuccourcir.
COURTAGE, sm. brokerage. See courtier.
COURTE-POINTE, sf a counterpane, quilt.
O.Fr, coulte ' pointe, from L. ciolcita
puncta. For culcita = coulte see couette ;
for ■p\uxc\iB,= pointe see poindre. Coulte-
pointe becomes courte-pointe by change of
/ into r, see apntre.
COURTIER, sm. a broker. O. Fr. couretier,
originally couratier. It. curattiere, from L.
curatarius* (one who looks after buying
and selling), der. from curatus. For loss of
a in cur(a)t£rius see § 52; for -arius
= -ier see § 198. — Der. courtage (through a
verb courter*, L. curatare*).
COURTINE, sf. a curtain (in fortification), a
bed-curtain; from L. cortlna, which in
medieval Lat. means a wall between two
bastions. For o = ou see § 76.
fCourtiaan, sm. a courtier; introd. in
16th cent, from It. cortigiano.
t Courtiser, va. to pay court to; introd.
towards end of the middle ages from Prov.
cortezar, deriv. of cort.
COURTOIS, adj. courteous. See cowr.— Der.
courtoisie.
COUSIN, sm. a cousin. Prov. cosin,
Grisons patois cusrin, from L. cosinus*,
found in the 7th cent, in the St. Gall
Vocabulary. Cosinus is from conso-
brinus by the regular change of ns into
s (cossobrinus), see aine; then by loss
of o (cos*rinus), see § 52. The r is
weakened into s (see arroser) in a very
unusual way, whence cosinus, found in a
Merov. document. Cosinus becomes
cousin by changing o into ou, see § 76.
— Der. cousinage.
COUSIN, sm. a gnat ; from L. culicinus*,
dim. of cvilicem. Ctaliclnus, contrd.
regularly (see § 52) into cvil'cinus,
becomes cousin. For ti1 = om see agneau;
for c = s see amitie.
COUSSIN, sm. a cushion; from L. culciti-
num*, dim. of culcita, properly a little
mattress. Culcitinum first loses its
medial t (see § 117), then becomes coussin.
For c = ss see agencer and amitie; for ul
= ou, see agneau. — Der. coussinet.
COUT, sm. cost, charge. See couter.
COUTEAU, sm. a knife. O. Fr. coutel, ori-
ginally coltel, It. cultello, from L. cultellus.
For ul = 0M, and -ellus = eaw, see agneau.
COUTER — CRA VATE,
99
■ — Der. coutelitr (from O. Fr, coutel), coutel-
lerie, coulela.s.
CO0TER, vn. to cost. O, Fr. conster, ori-
ginally coster, It. costare, from L. constare.
For ns = s (costare) see aine ; for o = ou
see § 76 ; for loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 81.
— Der. coitt (verbal subst.), coiitewx.
COUTIL, sm. bed-ticking, duck; deriv. of
coute. See couette.
COUTRE, sm. a coulter. It. coltro, from
L. cultrum. For ul = om see agneau.
COUTUME, sf. custom. O. Fr. comhime, ori-
ginally costume', in medieval Lat. costuma
(Chartulary of 705), from L. consuetu-
dinem. Cons(ue)tudineni, contrd. (see
§ 52) into cons'tudinem, becomes cos-
tudinem. by regular change of ns into s,
see aine', thence costume by -udinem =
-ume, see amertume ; thence coutume by o =
ou, see § 76 ; and by loss of s, see Hist.
Gram. p. 81. Coutume is a doublet of cos-
tiime. — Der. coutumiei, zccoutumer.
COUTURE, sf. a seam. O. Fr. cousture, ori-
ginally costure, Sp. costura, from L. con-
sutura*, deriv. of consuere. Cons(u)-
tiira, contrd. (see § 52) into cons'tura,
became costura by ns = s, see aine;
thence cousture by o = ou, see § 76 ; thence
couture by loss of s, see Hist. Gram. p. 81.
— Der. couturier, coutnrieie.
COUVENT, sm. a convent; from L. con-
ventum. For nv = v see Hist. Gram. p.
81 ; for o = 0M see § 76.
COUVER, va. to hatch, sit ; from L. cubare.
For b=v see § 113 ; for u = om see § 96.
— Der. couv6e, couvense, couvaison.
COUVERCLE, sm. a lid, cover; from L.
coop^rculum, contrd. regularly (§ 51)
into cooperc'lum, whence couvercle. For
o = oz/ see § 76; for p = v see § III.
COUVERT, sm. a cover. See couvrir.
COUVRIR, va. to wrap up, cover; from
L. cooperire. Cooperire, contrd. re-
gularly (see § 51) into coop'rire, be-
comes couvrir. For o = ou see § 76 ;
for p=i/ see § ill. — Der. convert, couv-
erte, cowverture, couvrtxxr, recouvrir, dd-
couvrir.
CRABE, sm. a crab; from Germ, krabhe. —
Der. crevette, dim. of crabe, through the
following steps ; first crdbette, then cravette.
For the regular change of b into 1/ see § 113.
DRAG, inter] . (an onomatopoetic word), crack !
(§ 34)- — Der. craquer.
3RACHER, va. to spit. O. Fr. racher, a word
of Germ, origin, Norse hraki, saliva. —
Der. crachemtnX., crachzt, crachoix. J
■ CRAIE, sf. chalk. O. Fr. croie, It. creta
from L. creta. For loss of t see aigu ; for
e = oi = ai see § 61. — Der. croyeux,
crayon.
CRAINDRE, va. to fear ; from L. tremere,
by the ordinary change of -emere into
-eindre (see geindre), and by the unusual
change of tr into cr. — Der. crainte (partic.
subst., see absoudre), craintii.
CRAMOISI, sm. crimson ; a word of Oriental
origin (Ar. karmesi), whence Low L. car-
raesinus ; whence Fr. cramoisi, by trans-
position of r, see aprete, and change of e
into oi, see § 61.
CRAMPE, sf. cramp ; a word of Germ, origin
(Engl, cramp).
CRAMPON, sm. a cramp-iron; dim. of O.Fr.
crampe, which is Germ, krampe. — Der.
cramponner.
CRAN, sm. a notch ; from L. crena, by the
unusual change of e into a. — Der. creweau
(O. Fr. crenel, from crenellum, dim. of
crena), cre«ele.
Cr&ne, sm. a skull; from Gr. Kpaviov. —
Der. crdnerle.
CRAPAUD, sm. a toad ; deriv. of O. Fr. verb
craper. Crapaud properly signifies the
crawler, creeper. Craper is of Germ, origin,
Icel. krjupa, to creep. — Der. crapaud'me.
Crapule, sf. crapulency; from L. crapula.
— Der. crapuhux.
CRAQUER, vn. to crack (onomatop.). See
crac. Craquer is a doublet of croquer. —
Der. craquement. craqueter.
Crase, sf. crasis ; from Gr. Kpdffis.
Crasse, adj. gross, thick; from L. crassus.
Crasse is a doublet of gras, q. v. — Der.
crasse (sf.), crasseux, decrasser, encrasser.
CratSre, sm. a crater; from L. crater.
fCravache, sf a riding-whip; introd.
by Germ, soldiers from Germ, karbatsche ;
a word of Sclav, origin.
Cravate, sm. a Croat, sf. a cravat ; a word
of hist, origin, see § 33. Under corvee
we have explained the origin etc. of this
word. Manage, who lived when ' cravats '
were first brought into France, confirms
this etymology : he says — Cravate, on
appelle ainsi ce linge blanc qu^on entortille
a Ventour du cou, dont les deux bouts pen-
dent par devant; lequel linge tient lieu de
collet. Et on I'appelle de la sorte, a cause
que nous avons emprunte, cette sorte d'orne-
ment des Croates, qu'on appelle ordinaire-
ment Cravates. Et ce fut en 1636 que
nous prismes cette sorte de collet des Cra-
vates, par le commtrce que nous eusmes en
H2
lOO
€RA YON — CRISTAL.
ct tans-la en AUemagne au sujet de la
guerre que nous avians avec VEmpereur.
Cravate is a doublet of the proper name
Croate.
CRAYON, sm. a lead pencil. See craie. —
Der. crayonxitx.
CR^ANCE, 5/. credit ; properly = croyance
in the phrases lettres de creance, donner
creance a tine chose ; from L. oredentia*,
der. from credere. For loss of medial
t see abbaye; for -iia, = -ce see agencer.
Creance is a doublet of croyance and cre-
dence. — Der. creancitx.
Cr6ateur, sm. a creator ; from L. crea-
torem.
Creation, s/. creation; from L.creationem.
Creature, sf. a creature; from L. creatura.
CRECELLE, sf. a rattle.' Origin unknown.
CRfeCHE, sf. a manger, crib. Prov. crepcha,
It. greppia,z word of Germ, origin, O. Sax.
cribbia. For -pia = -pja = -pcha = -che see
Hist. Gram. p. 65.
Credibility, sf. credibility; from credi-
bilitatem.
Credit, sm. credit; from L. creditum. —
Der. credittx, creditcux, accrediiex, discredit-
ex, decreditex.
Cr6dule, adj. credulous ; from L. credul.us.
— Der. creduhte, incr6dule.
CREER, va. to create ; from L. creare.
CREMAILLfiRE, sf. a pothook ; from O. Fr.
cremaille, which from L. cramaculus*,
found (8th cent.) in the Capitul. de Villis,
part 41 ; ' catenas cramaculos.' For
-aculus = -az7Ze see § 255; for a = e see
§ 54. Cramaculus is of Germ, origin,
a dim. of Neth. kram.
Cr^me, sf cream; from L. crema (used
by Fortunatus). — Der. ecremtx.
CR^NEAU, sm. an embrasure, battlement.
See cran. — Der. creneler.
+ Creole, sm. a Creole; introd. from Sp.
criollo.
CREPER, va. to crisp, crimp (hair) ; from
L. crispare. For i = e see mettre; for
loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 81. Creper is
a doublet of crepir (used in the phrase
crepir du crin, to crisp horsehair), crisper,
q.v. — Der. (l) crepe (crape, stuff lightly
crisped), (2) crepe (a thin cake like crape),
crepu, crepme.
CREPIR, va. to crisp. See creper. — Der.
crept (panic, subst.), (Te/>issure.
Crepitation, sf crackling; from L. cre-
pitationem.
Cr6puseule, sm. twilight, dawn ; from L.
crepusculum. — Der. crepuscuhixe.
+ Crescendo, adv. (Mus.) crescendo; an
It. word, = Fr. croissant.
CRESSON, sm. cress. It. crescione, from L.
crescionem *, from crescere, lit, a plant
which grows quickly. sc is assimilated
into ss before e and i, as in crescentem,
croisi^nnt; nascentem, naissant, etc.
CRftTE, sf a crest, cock's comb. O. Fr. creste,
from L. crista. For i = e see mettre;
for loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 81.
f Cretin, sm. a cretin, idiot ; a Swiss word,
from the Grisons patois. Cretin is a doublet
of Chretien, q. v. — Der. cre'/misme.
Cretonne, sf. linen cloth, stout calico.
Origin unknown.
CREUSER, va. to dig a pit. See creux.
CREUSET, sm. a crucible, melting-pot.
Origin unknown.
CREUX, adj. hollow. Prov. cros, Low L.
crosuin, contrd. from L. corrosum. For
'08\mx = -eux see § 229; for contrac-
tion of corrosus into c'rosus see briller.
— Der. cr^Mser.
CREVER, vn. to burst. Prov. crebar. It.
crepare, from L. erepare. For p = v see
§ III. — Der. crevasse, creve-coeur.
CREVETTE, sf a shrimp, prawn. See crabe.
CRIAILLER, vn. to bawl, squall. See crier.
— Der. criailler'ie.
CRIBLE, sm. a sieve, riddle ; from L. cri-
brum. For dissimilation of r into / see
§ 169 and autel. — Der. criblex.
CRIC, sm. a screw-jack (an onomatopoetic
word). See § 34.
CRIER, vn. to cry. Prov. cridar, Sp. gritar,
from L. quiritare. For contraction of
q(\u)ritare into q'ritare see briller ; for
q = e see car ; for loss of medial t see
abbaye and §11 7. — Der. cri (verbal subst.),
crzeur, mard, criee,decrier, s'^crier, cria.i\lex.
Crime, sm. a crime ; from L. crimen.
Criminel, adj. criminal; from L. crimi-
nalis. — Der. criminality, criminalisex, cri-
mmaliste.
CRIN, sm. horsehair ; from L. crinis. For
the restriction of sense see § 12. — Der.
cnVziere, crmoline.
CRI QUE, sf a creek; a word of Germ,
origin, Neth. hreeli.
CRIQUET, sm. a field-cricket, grasshopper;
der. from eric, an onomatopoetic word. The
cricket is similarly called cri-cri.
Crise, sf a crisis ; from L. crisis.
Crisper, vn. to shrivel; from L. crispare.
— Der. cr/spation.
Cristal, sm.a crystal; fromL.crystallum. —
Der. cristal\xxi, crisiallistx, cns/a/lisation.
CRITERIUM— CRYPTOGRAPHIC.
lOI
Criterium, sm. a criterion; a Lat. word,
from Gr. KpiT-qpiov.
Critique, adj. critical, sf. criticism, sm.
a critic; from Gr. Kpirifcos. — Der. cri-
tiquex, critiquahle.
CROASSER, vn. to croak, caw (an onoma-
topoetic word), — Der. croassement.
CROC, sm. a hook ; of Germ, origin, Neth.
krok. — Der. crochet, crochu, crochi, ac-
crocher, decrocher.
CROCHET, sm. a little hook. See croc—
Der. crochettx, crochetem.
CROCHU, adj. hooked, crooked. See croc.
Crocodile, sm. a crocodile; from L. cro-
codilus.
CROIRE, va. to believe ; from L. credere.
For the changes see under accroire. — Der.
crqyant, cro>'ance, cro^able, Accroire, me-
crotre.
tCroisade, /, a crusade; from Pro v.
crozada, which from cro2, which from L.
crucem. Croisade is a doublet of croisee.
CROISER, va. to cross. See croix. — Der.
croise, crofsement, croisee (primitively =/c-
nctre croisee, i.e. divided into four compart-
ments by mullion and transom), cro/siere.
CROISSANT, sm. a crescent. See croitre.
Croissant is a doublet of It. crescendo.
CROITRE, vn. to grow, increase ; from L.
cr^scere. For the changes see under ac-
croitre. — Der. croit (verbal subst.), cru, crue,
accroitre, d4croitre, lecroitre, surcroitre.
The partic. croissant is from L.creseentem.
For e = oi see §§ 61,62; for sc = ss see
cxesson : hence the two subst. croissant and
croissance.
CROIX, sf. a cross ; from L. crucem. For
u = oi see angoisse ; for c = « see amitie.
— Der. croiser.
CROQUER, va. to crunch (an onomatopoetic
word). Croqner is a doublet of craquer. —
Der. croywette, croquh, croyj/ignole.
CROQUIS, sm. a sketch. See croquer.
CROSSE, sf. a crozier. O. Fr. croce. It.
croccia, medieval L. crucea, deriv. of cru-
cem. Crucea signifies properly a cross-
shaped crutch ; the exclusive sense of
crozier is modern. In some provinces the
phrase marcher aiix crosses, is still used of
infirm persons who walk with crutches.
CROTTE, sf. dirt, mud. Origin unknown.
— Der. crotler, decrotter, crottin.
CROULER, vn. to fall down, sink down.
O. Fr. croller, originally crodler, Prov.
crotlar, from L, corotulfire*, to roll toge-
ther. It loses its atonic u regularly (see
§ 52) and becomes corot'lare, and thence
c'rot'laa-e by losing the first o (see hriller).
Crotlare assimilates tl into // (see § 168),
and becomes O. Fr. croller, whence crouler,
by resolution of ol into ou (see agneau). —
Der. ecrouler.
t Croup, sm. croup; an Engl, word introd.
into Fr. about 181 5.
CROUPE, sf. crupper, rump. O. Fr. crope.
The original sense is a protuberance, as in
croupe d'une montagne, etc. ; of Germ,
origin, Norse^ro/>pr, hryppa. — Der. crow/>ion,
crow/iere, croup'n (which in O. Fr. meant
to cover, s'accro«//>ir, croupier (properly one's
associate in the game, metaph. from one
who rides on one's crupper).
CROUPIER, sm. a croupier. See croupe.
CROUPION, sm. a rump. See croupe.
CROUPIR, vn. to stagnate. See croupe.
CROCtTE, sf. a crust. O. Fr. crouste, from
L. crusta. For u = om see § 90 ; for loss
of s see Hist. Gram. p. 81,' — Der. crouton,
encroiiter, crowstiller.
CROYABLE, adj. credible. See croire.
CROYANCE, /. belief. See croire. Croyance
is a doublet of credence, creance, q. v.
CRU, sm. growth. See croitre.
CRU, adj. crude; from L. crudus, by loss
of d, see alouette.
CRUAUTE, sf. cruelty. O. Fr. crualte,
originally cruelte, from L. crudelitdtem,
which, contrd. regularly (see § 52) into
orudel'tatem, becomes O. Fr. crualtet by
loss of medial d, see § 120; and then
cruaute, by softening 1 into u, see agneau ;
and by -atem = e/=e, see § 230.
CRUCHE, sf. a pitcher, jug, cruse. Of Celtic
origin, Kymri cruc, crwc. — Der. cruchon.
Cnicifere, adj. (Bot.) cruciferous ; from
L. crucifer.
Crucifier, va. to crucify; from L. cruci-
ficare*. For loss of c see affouage. —
Der. criicifiemen\.
Crucifix, sm. a crucifix; from L. cruci-
fixus.
Crudit6, sf. crudity, rawness ; from L. cru-
ditatem.
CRUE, sf. rising, increase. See croitre.
CRUEL, adj. cruel ; from L. crudelis, by
loss of medial d, see § 1 20.
Crustac6, adj. crustaceous; from L. crus-
ta ce us*, clothed in a crust, crusta.
Crypte, sf. a crypt; from L. crypta.
Crypte is a doublet oi grotte, q. v.
Cryptogame, adj. cryptogamous ; from
Gr. KpvnTos and yafieiy.
Cryptographic, sf cryptography; from
Gr. Kpvnros, and ypd^eiv.
102
CUBE — CYLINDRE.
Cube, sw. a cube; from L. cubus. — Der.
cubtr, cubige, cj/6ique,
t Cubitus, sm. a cubit; from L. cubitus.
CUEILLIR, va. to collect ; from L. oolligere.
For the changes see accueillir. Cueillir is
a doublet of colliger. — Der. cueillette (L.
collecta, of which the doublet is collecte ;
for ct = // see assiette and § i68), ^iCcueilUr,
recueillir.
CUIDER, va. to think; from L. cogitare.
Cogit^e is contrd. regularly (see § 52)
into cog'tare. o becomes ui as in co-
quina, cuisine, etc., § 84. In some words
the o has become ui by attraction of the i,
as in i n-o d i o, ennui. For gt = c? see aider.
— Der. outrecwicfance.
CUILLER, ff. a spoon ; from L. cochleare
(found in Pliny and Martial), written co-
cleare in the last ages of the Empire. For
o = ui see cuider ; for cl = il see Hist. Gram,
p. 71. — Der. cuillere, cuiller6e.
CUIR, sm. hide, skin, leather; from L. ce-
rium. For o = ui see chanoine.
+ Cuirasse, sf. a cuirass; introd. from It.
corazza. — Der. cuirasser, cuirassieT.
CUIRE, va. to cook, dress ; from L, coquere,
written cocere in a 3rd-cent. inscription:
see car. CocSre, contrd. regularly (see
§ 51) into coc*re becomes cuire by change
of o into ui through the influence of the cr
(see cuider), which cr is reduced to r, see
benir.
CUISINE, sf. a kitchen. It. cucina, Sp. coci-
na, from L. coquina, used by Palladius
and Isidore of Seville. Coquina, written
cocina in the Glosses (see car), becomes
cuisine. For o = ui see cuider ; for c = s
seeamitie. — Der. cuisineT,cuisinieT,cmsinihTe.
CUISSE, sf. a thigh, leg; from L. coxa, a
word written cossa by the Romans. For
7i = ss see aisselle ; for o = ui see cuider. —
Der. cuissot, cuiss^rd.
CUISSON, sf. cooking, baking ; from L. coc-
tionem. For o = ui under influence of c
see cuider and attrait ; for ti = ss see
agencer. Cuisspn is a doublet of coction,
q.v.
CUISTRE, sm. originally a cook, then a
college-servant, then a pedant; from L.
cocistro*, used by Isidore of Seville, a
form of L. coquaster*, deriv. of coquus.
For loss of medial c of co(c)istro see
affouage ; for o = ui see cuider.
CUIVRE, sm. copper ; from L. cuprum.
For p=v see § ill ; for u = ttj see buis. —
Der. cuivrer.
CUL, sm. a bottom ; from L. cuius. — Der.
cuhsse, accw/er, 6culer, rectt/er, culie, cul-
otte; cw/buter {ieebuter), c«/-de-sac.
Culinaire, adj. culinary; from L. cuH-
narius.
Culminer, vti. to culminate ; from L. cul-
minare.
Culpabilit6, sf. culpability ; from L. cul-
pabilitatem.
Culte, sm. worship; from L. cultus.
Cultiver, va. to cultivate ; from L. culti-
vare*, used in Low Lat.
Culture, sf. culture; from L. cultura.
Cumin, sm. cumin; from L. cuminum.
Cumuler, va. to accumulate ; from L. cu-
mulare. — Der. cumul (verbal subst.).
Cun^iforme.flfl?/. cuneiform, wedge-shaped;
from L. cuneus.
Cupide, ac?/. greedy; from L. cupidus.—
Der. cupidiie.
't'Cura9ao, sm. cura5oa, a liqueur imported
from the Island of Curagao.
Curateur, sm. a guardian, curator ; from L.
curatorem, deriv. of curare. — Der. curat-
elle.
Cure, (i) sf. cure, doctoring; (2) cure (of
souls) ; from L. cura, in eccles. Lat. the cure
of souls. Cura took the sense of the duty of
a curate, then by extension (3) a parsonage,
vicarage. — Der. cure (one who holds a cure),
CUREE, sf. a quarry (^hunting term); from
L. corata*, the entrails etc. of an animal,
from cor ; cur^e being properly the en-
entrails etc. of the stag, thrown to the
dogs. For -ata = -ee see § 201. o here
becomes u, as in forum, fur.
CURER, va. to cleanse, clean, prune; from
L. curare. — Der. c^^rage, cwreur, recurer,
cure-dent, cwre-oreille.
Curieux, adj. curious; from L. cur iosus.
For -osus = -eux see § 229.
Curiosity, s/^. curiosity ; from L. curiosi-
tateni.
Cursive, adj. cursive; from L. cursiva*,
which from cu'rsum, supine of currere.
Cutan6, adj. cutaneous; from L. cuta-
neus*, deriv. of cutis.
t Cutter, sm. a cutter; sea-term, from
Engl, cutter.
CUVE, sf. a vat, tub ; from L. cupa. For
p = v see § III. — Der. cuviev, cuv6e, cuv-
ette, cuvex.
Cycle, sm. a cycle ; from Gr. kvkXos. — Der.
cyc/ique.
Cyclope, sm, a cyclop ; from Gr. KvK\ai\p.
— Der. cyclopeen.
Cygne. sm. a swan; from L. cygnus.
Cylindre, sm. a cylinder; from L. cylin-
CYMAISE—DAMOISEA U,
103
drus. Cylindre is a doublet of calandre.
— Der. cylindr'i(]\ie.
f Cymaise, sf. (Archit.) an ogee; introd.
in 1 6th cent, from It. cimasa.
Cjrmbale, sf. a cymbal; from L. cymbal-
um. Cymbale is a doublet of cymble. —
Der. cymbaliev.
Cynique, adj. cynical; from L. cynicus.
— Der. cynisme.
Cyprus, sm. a cypress; from L. cu-
pressus.
Cytise, sm. a cytisus ; from Gr. kvthtos.
t Czar, sm. the Czar; from Russ. tzar.
D.
DA, inter}, truly, indeed ! O. Fr. dea, dia,
originally diva, compd. of the two im-
peratives di (dis) and va. See dire and aller.
We even find the interjection diva followed
by di. Ruteboeuf (13th cent.), in his
Miracle de Theophile, has diva di, lit. ' say-
go-say ' showing clearly the presence of the
imperative dis in the word.
Dactyle, sm. a dactyl; from L. dactylus.
Dactyle is a doublet of datte.
DAGUE, sf. a dagger. Origin unknown. —
Der. daguet (a young stag, with straight
horns like daggers).
Dahlia, sf. a dahlia ; a word of hist, origin,
see § 33. A plant named after Dahl by
Cavanilles.
DAIGNER, vn. to deign ; from L. dignari.
For i = ai see marraine. — Der. didaigner.
DAIM, sm. a deer ; from L. damus*, secon-
dary form of dama. For a = a« see aigle.
— Der, daine. As O. Fr. wrote dain for
dai7n, the corresponding fem. is daine.
DAIS, sm. a canopy. O. Fr. dois, It. desco,
from L. discus. Dais in O. Fr. always
meant a dinner-table, but specially a state-
table with a canopy ; gradually the sense of
table has been lost and that of canopy
prevails, whereas in Eng. the sense of
canopy is lost, while that of a state-table
remains. Discus gives O. Fr, dois, as
meniscus, menois, by change of i into oi,
see hois. Dois becomes dais by change of
oi into ai, see § 61. Dais is a doublet of
disque.
DALLE, sf. a flagstone. Origin unknown. —
Der. dalhx.
DAM, cost, loss ; from L, damnum. For
inn = m see allumer and § 168,
Damas, sm. Damascus, damask ; a word of
hist, origin (§ 33), from Damascus, where
damask was first made, — Der, damas^tx.
t Damasquiner, va. to inlay with gold
and silver ; from damasquin. Introd. in
1 6th cent, from It. damaschino, a Damas-
cus blade.
DAME, sf. a lady ; from L. domina, written
dom.na in the inscriptions. Domna be-
comes dame by changing m.11 into m (see
allumer and § 168) and o into a, the only
instance of this change for accented o,
though there are several examples of atonic
o being changed to a, as domicellus*,
damoiseau; dominiarium*, danger; lo-
cust a, langouste. Dame is a doublet of
dom, masc, and of duegne, fem. — Der.
t/aweret, damtx, damiex.
DAME, interj. why 1 indeed ! This word is
all that remains of the medieval exclama-
tion Dame-Dieu! (from L. domine Deus !
i. e. Seigneur Dieu !) The right sense of
dame ! is therefore Lord !
D6m.mus was reduced to domnus by
the Romans themselves : the form is found
in several inscriptions under the Empire, see
§ 51. Dom.ine similarly becomes dom.ne,
whence dame (interj.), just as dom.na be-
came dame (sf.). For details of these
changes see above, under dame (l),
f Dame, sf. a dam ; from Germ. damm.
DAMER, va. to crown a man (at draughts).
See dame (1).
DAMERET, sm. a ladies' man. See dame (i).
DAMIER, sm. a draught-board. See dame (i).
Damner, va. to damn, condemn ; from L.
damnare Der. cfamwation, damnMe.
DAMOISEAU, sm. a page (a gentleman who
is not yet knighted), O. Fr, damoisel, from
L. dom.inicellus*, dim. of dominus.
Dominicellus, contrd, regularly (see
§ 52) to domin'cellus, drops the n
(see coque) and becomes domicellus, the
form used in medieval Lat. : ' Non habeant
I04
DANDINER — DSbARQUER.
domicellos,' in the Statutes of Cluni.
From domicellus comes straight the
O. Fr. datnoisel. For o=»a see datne (l) ;
for i = oi see boire; for c = s see amitie.
Datnoisel afterwards became datnoiseau, by
resolution of -el into -eau ; see agneau. —
Der. demoisdh (O. Fr. t/amoiselle, fem. of
O. Fr. datnoisel).
DANDINER, vn. to walk awkwardly, like a
dandin, an O. Fr. adj. meaning clumsy,
boobyish. This adj. is personified in such
names as Perrin Dandin, Georges Dandin,
etc. Origin unknown.
+ Dandy, sm. a <^ndy; introd. from Engl,
during the Restoration period.
DANGER, sm. danger, peril. The original
sense of this word is 'power.* Eire en dan-
ger rfe Vennemi signified in the middle ages
to be in one's enemy's power, at his
mercy. From this signification it passed
by natural transition to the sense of peril,
danger ; it is perilous to be in the enemy's
•danger.* This sense of power remained
up to the middle of the l6th cent. Danger,
O. Fr. dongier (for o = a see dame l),
comes from L. dominiarium*, deriv. of
dominium, used in sense of 'sovereignty'
by Cicero. Just as dominus had become
doxonus in Roman days (see dame 2), so
dominiarium became domniarium,
which consonified the ia (see the rule under
ahreger and Hist. Gram. p. 65) ; whence
domnjaritmi, whence O. Fr. dongier
For m = « see changer; for -arium = -fer
see § 198. — Der. dangereux.
DANS, prep. in. O. Fr. dens {d'ens contrd.
from de and ens) ; ens is L. intus. For
intus = ens see mettre ; for dens = dans see
§ 65, note I. — Der. derfaws.
DANSER, vn. to dance ; a word of Germ,
origin, O.H.G. danson. — Dei.danse (verbal
subst.), dansem, coniTedatts.
DARD, sm. a dart. It. dardo, a word of
Germ, origin, A. S. dara^. — Der. darder.
DARNE, sf. a slice ; a word of Celtic origin,
Kymri darn, a slice, piece.
+ Darse, sf. a floating wet-dock; introd,
from It. darsena.
Dartre, sf. (Med.) shingles, rash. Origin
unknown. — Der. dartreux.
Date, sf. a date. It. data, from L. data,
rightly meaning • given,' in the expression
• datum Romae.' — Der. datei, zntidatei,
postrfa/er.
Datif, sm. a dative; from L. dativus.
DATTE, sf. a date ; also written dacte. Port.
datil, from L. dactyUis. For ct=//see
§ 168; for loss of the two last syllables,
-ylus, see §§ 50, 51. Daile is a doublet
of dactyle, q.v. — Der. dattier.
Daube, sf a stew. Origin unknown.
DAUBER, va. properly to beat, cuff. A word
of Germ, origin ; O. G. dubban, to dab,
strike.
DAUPHIN, sm. a dolphin. Prov. dalfin, from
L. delphinus. The eldest son of the King
of France began to bear the name of the
Dauphin in the year 1343, the date of the
absorption of Dauphine into the kingdom.
Dauphin^, or rather the Viennois, had had
several lords named Dauphin, a proper
name which is simply the L. delphinus.
For el = aM see agneau; for ph.=/ see
coffre and § 146.
DA VANTAGE, adv. more. O.Ft. d'avant-
age ; see de and vantage.
Davier, sm. (Med.) the forceps. Origin un-
known.
DE, prep, of; from L. de.
DE-. A prefix which answers (i) to L. de ;
(2) to L, dis (in the latter case the
original Fr. form was des: calceare,
chausser; dis-calceare, des-chausser, then
dechausser. For dis = des = de see mettre
and Hist. Gram. p. 81. We have in the
double form decrediter, discrediter a strik-
ing example of the opposition of the popular
and learned forms) ; (3) to L. de-ex in a
few words, devier, deduire, etc., which in
O. Fr. were desvier (de-ex-viare), desduire
J^de-exducere), etc.
DE, sm. a thimble. O. Fr. del, originally deel,
Sp. dedal, It. ditale; from L. digitale*.
Digitdle, contrd. regularly (see § 52)
into dig'tale, loses its medial t, di-t-ale
(see abbaye), whence O. Fr. deel. For -ale
= -el see § 191; for i = g see mettre.
De is a doublet of doigt, q.v.
DE, sm. a die, pi. dice ; from L. datum, i. e.
what is thrown on the table, from dare,
to throw, as in such phrases as * Dare
ad terram.' etc. For -atum = -e see am-
poule.
DEBACLE, sf. a break-up (of ice). See
bacler.
d£bALLER, va. to unpack. See balle. — Der.
debalhge.
DEBANDER. va. to disband. See bande (2).
— Der. debandade.
DEBARDER, DEBARDEUR, va. to unlade ;
sm. lighterman. See bard.
DEBARQUER, va. to unship (goods); vn.
to land. See barque. — Der. debarcudhve
(cp. Sp. sembarcddero).
d£ba rrasser — dScharger .
105
DSBARRASSER, va. to clear up, rid. See
embarrasser. — Der. debarras (verbal subst.).
D^BATTRE, va. to argue, debate. See
battre. — Der debat (verbal subst.).
DEBAUCHER, va. to debauch, entice aw^ay
from one's duty, i. e. from bauche, O. Fr.
for a workshop. The origin of bauche is
unknown. — Der. debauche (properly cessa-
tion of work, then idleness, then debauch).
fD^het, sm. a debit; a Lat. word, debet.
D§bile, a(i;. weak ; from L. debilis. Debile
is a doublet of O. Fr. dieble. — Der. debilitei,
debilite.
D6bit, sm. a sale, shop; from L. debitum.
Debit is a doublet of dette. — Der. debitor,
debiteuT.
D6blat6rer, w. to rail at; from L. debla-
terare.
DEBLAYER, va. to clear away; from L.
debladare*. In medieval Lat. this word
kept its original sense of carrying corn from
a field, then of carrying off, clearing away
generally. In a Chartulary of 1272 we
read, ' Similiter in pratis ipsorum de dicto
loco, postquam fuerint debladata.' De-
bladare is a deriv. of bladura*, q. v.
Debladare becomes deblayer by loss of
medial d ; see accabler. — Der. deblai
(verbal subst.),
DEBLOQUER, va. to raise a blockade. See
bloquer.
DEBOIRE, sm. an after-taste, disappointment.
See boire.
DEBOITER, va. to dislocate. See hotte.
DEBONNAIRE, adj. meek, goodnatured.
O. Fr. de bon aire. See air (in sense of
jiatural disposition).
DEBORDER, vn. to overflow, run over. See
bord. — Der. debord, debordement (verbal
subst.).
DEBOUCHER, va. to uncork ; vn. to emerge.
See boucher. — Der. debouche.
DEBOURSER, va. to disburse. See bourse. —
Der. debours (verbal subst.).
DEBOUT, adv. on end. See bout.
DEBOUTER, va. to nonsuit. See bouter.
DEBRAILLER, va. to uncover the breast.
See braie.
DEBRIS, sm. pi. remains, fragments. See
briser.
DEBUCHER, vn. to break cover (hunting).
See buche and bois.
tP6busquer, va. to drive out. See
embusquer and de-.
DEBUT, sm. a beginning, first stroke, outset.
. See but. — Der. debuter, debutant.
•jDEQA, prep, on this side of. See de and fa.
Decade, sf. a decade ; from Gr. Sifcas, -6.S0S.
Decadence, sf. decadence; from L. deca-
de nti a*, from decadere*. Decadence is
a doublet of decheance, q. v.
D6cadi, sm. the tenth and last day of the
decade in the calendar of the first French
republic ; from Gr. Se'/fo and L. dies.
Decagone, sm. a decagon ; from Gr. 56«a-
yojvos.
Decagramme, sm. a decagram; from
Gr. Sifca, and gramme, q. v.
Decalitre, sm. a measure of ten litres ;
from Gr. Siita, and litre, q. v.
Decalogue, sm. the decalogue; from Gr.
deKaXoyos.
DECAMPER, vn. to decamp. See camper.
D6eanat, sm. a deanery; from L. deca-
natus, from decanus. Decanat is a
doublet of doyenne.
Decanter, va. to decant. It. decantare,
from L. decanthare*, to pour wine out
gently, which from L. canthus, the angle
o( a wine-jar.
DECAPER, va. to clean (properly to scrape
off the crust of dirt or rust on a metallic
surface), deriv. of cape, a cloak, q. v.
Thus decaper would mean to uncloak the
metal, strip it naked. — Der. decapage.
D6capiter, va. to behead ; from L. deca-
p it are*, deriv. oi caput.
Deceder, vn. to depart this life, die ; from
L. decedere.
DECELER, va. to disclose. See celer.
DECEMBRE, sm. December; from L. de-
cembrem.
Deceimal, adj. decennial; from L. decen-
nalis.
Decent, adj. decent; from L. decentem. —
Der. decence.
Deception, sf. deception; from L. decep-
tionem.
D^cerner, va. to award (honours, etc.) ;
from L. decernere.
D6cds, sm. decease, death; fromL.decessus.
DECEVOIR, va. to deceive ; from L. deci-
pere. For -cipere = -cevoir see concevoir.
— Der. decevable.
DECHAINER, va. to let loose (a dog).
O. Fr. deschainer, from L. dis-catenare*.
For the changes see de- and chaine. — Der.
dechainement. *
DECHANTER, vn. to change one's note.
O. Fr. deachanter. See de- and chanter.
DECHARGER, va. to unload, discharge.
O. Fr. descharger. See de- and charger. —
Der. decharge (verbal subst.), decharge-
ment.
io5
DECHA RNER — D^CRE T.
DECHARNER, va. to strip the flesh off.
O. Fr. descharner, Sp. descarnar, from L.
discamare'*'. To take off the flesh, car-
nem. For o = ch see § 126. For dxH = de
see de-.
DfiCHAUSSER, va. to pull off boots, shoes,
etc, O. Fr. desckausser, from L. discal-
ceare. For the changes see chausser and
de-. — Der. ddchaux (the barefooted friars,
Carmelites').
DfiCHEANCE, sf. forfeiture ; from L. deca-
dentia, from decadere. For loss of
medial d see accabler; for ca, — che see
§§ 126 and 54; iox-tia, = -ce stt agencer.
Decheance is a doublet of decadence,
il-v.
DECHET, sm. waste, loss. See dechoir.
Dechet is a doublet of dcchoit.
DECHIFFRER, va. to decipher. See chiffre.
J— Der. deckiffrahle, indeckiffrzhle.
DECHIQUETER, va. to cut up, slash, chop
into ; a word which seems to be a dim. of
chiqidet, from L. ciccum (an insignificant
thing, trifle).
DECHIRER, va. to tear up. O. Fr. des-
chirer, compd. of O. Fr. eschirer, Prov.
esqnirar; a word of Germ, origin, O. H. G.
skerran. — Der. dechirement, dechirure.
DECHOIR, vn. to fall (from), sink, decline.
See de andchoir. — Der. cfecAet (another form
of dechoit). See § 187.
Decider, va. to decide (a case), settle ; vn.
to decide,- judge; from L. decidere. —
Der. indecis (from in and decisus), decisis
(from decisivus*, deriv. of decisus).
D^cime, sm. a tenth, tithe; from L. de-
cima. Decime is a doublet of dixieme
and dime, q. v. — Der. decimtx, decitmXion,
decimal.
D^cimdtre, sm. a decimeter ; from L.
prefix deci- and metre, q. v. The prefix
deci- denotes ten, so that the word is ill-
formed, as it rightly means ' ten metres,'
not ' a tenth of a metre ' ; for the Lat.
deci- multiplies, not divides.
Decisif, adj. decisive. See decider.
Decision, sf. a decision; from L. de-
cisionem.
D6clamer, va. to declaim, recite ; from L.
dec lam are. — Der. declamation, declam-
atoirer
Declarer, va. to declare ; from L. de-
ci ar are. — Der. declamation.
!D6clmer, vn. to wane, decline ; va. to de-
cline (an invitation, etc.); from L. de-
clinare — Der. declin (verbal subst.), de-
c/mable, declinzison.
D6clive, adj. sloping; from L. declivus. —
Der. d(^clivit6.
DECLORE, va. to unclose. See d4- and clore.
DECLOUER, va. to unnail, unfasten. See
de- and clouer.
DECOCHER, va. to discharge, shoot. See
de- and coche,
D6coction, sf. a decoction ; from L.
decoctionem.
DECOIFFER, va. to take off a coif, head-
dress. See coiffer.
D6collation, sf. a beheading; from L. de-
j:ollationem.
DECOLLER, va. to behead. See col.
DECOLLER, va. to unpaste, unglue. See
colle.
DECOLLETER, va. to bare neck and shoul-
ders. See collet.
DECOLORER, va. to discolour. See de-
and colorer.
DECOMBRES, sm. pi. rubbish. See en-
comhre.
Decomposer, va. to decompose. See
composer. — Der. decomposition.
DECONFIRE, va. to discomfit, rout. Mal-
herbe writes that la France a deconfit
I'Espagne. Deconjire, O. Fr. desconjire,
is from L. disconficere (compd. of con-
ficere). For changes see de- and confire.
—Der. deconjitme.
DECONTENANCER, va. to abash. See
contenance,
DECONVENUE, sf mishap, ill-luck. See
de- and convenir.
D6corer, va. to decorate; from L. deco-
ra re. — Der. decor (verbal subst.), decora-
tion, decorat&nx, decoratif.
D6coruin, sm. decorum, propriety; from
L. decorum.
DECOUCHER, vn. to sleep out. See de-
and coucher.
DECOUDRE, va. to unsew. See de- and
coudre.
DECOULER, vn. to flow down. See de- and
couler. '
DECOUPER, va. to carve, cut out. See de-
and couper. — Der. decotipnre.
DECOUVRIR, va. to uncover, discover. See
de- and couvrir. — Der. decouv&rtt (partic,
subst.).
DECRASSER, va. to cleanse. See crasse.
DECREDITER, va. to discredit. See de-
and crediter. ,
D6cr6pit, adj. decrepit; from L. decre-
pitus. — Der. decrepitude.
D6cret, sm. a decree; from L. decretum.
— Der. decrettx, decretalt.
DJ^CRIER — DjSgSnSreSCENCE.
107
DECRIER, va. to decry. See de- and crier.
— Der. decri (verbal subst.).
DECRIRE, va. to describe. O. Fr. descrire,
from L. describere. For changes see
ecrire.
DECROCHER, va. to unhook, take down.
See croc.
DECROITRE, vn. to shorten, decrease. See
croitre. — Der. t/ecroissant, cfeVroissance,
decree.
DECROTTER, va. to clean, brush. See
crotte. — Der. decrotieur, decrottovc.
Decuple, adj. tenfold; from L. decuplus.
— Der. dectipler.
D^DAIGNER, va. to scorn, disdain. O. Fr.
desdaigner. It. disdegnare, from L. dis
(see de-) and dignari (see daigner). — Der.
dedain (verbal subst.), dedaigtieux.
Dedale, sm. a maze, labyrinth; from Gr.
Aaida\os (who made the Cretan labyrinth).
DEDANS, adv. insist, within. See de and dans.
Dedicace, 5/". dedication; from L. dedicatio.
DEDIER, va. to dedicate ; from L. dedicare.
For loss of medial c see affouage.
DEDIRE, va. to contradict. See de- and
dire. — Der. dediX..
Deduction, sf. a deduction; from L. de-
ductionem.
DEDUIRE, va. to deduct; from L. de-
ducere. Dediicere, contrd. regularly,
by the rule of the Lat. accent, into de-
duc're, becomes deduire by changing cr
into ir, for which see benir.
DEESSE, sf. a goddess. O. Fr. deuesse, formed
from O. Fr. deu (which from L. deus),
and the fem. sufBx -esse. See abbesse.
DEFAILLIR, vn. to fail. See de- and faillir.
J— Der. defaithncQ.
DEFAIRE, va. to undo, unmake. O. Fr.
desfaire. See de- and /aire. — Der. defaite
(partic. subst.).
DEFALQUER, va. to deduct, subtract. It.
diffalcare, compd. of de- (q. v.) and the
radical falquer, a word of Germ, origin,
O. H. G.falcan. — Der. defalcuXion.
DEFAUT, sm. a defect, blemish. Seefaute.
DEFAVEUR, sf. disfavour, disgrace. See de-
andfaveiir. — Der. defavoxa.h[e.
Defectif, adj. defective; from L. defec-
tivus.
Defection, sf. defection; from L. defec-
tionem.
D6fectueux, adj. defective; from L. de-
fectuosus*.
DEFENDRE, va. to defend; from L. de-
fendere. For loss of penult, e see § 51.
— Der. defendMe, defendem, dtfenderesss.
DEFENSE, sf. defence ; from L. defensa *, a
word found in TertuUian.
D6fenseur, sm. a defender; from L. de-
fensorem.
fD^fensif, adj. defensive; introd. in i6th
cent, from It. defensivo.
D§ferer, va. to confer, bestow ; from L. de-
fer re. — Der. defer QWCQ.
DfiFERLER, va. to unfurl. ?>Qeferler.
DEFERRER, va. to unshoe, take the tires off
a wheel. See fer.
DEFIANCE, sf distrust, diffidence. See defter.
t Deficit, s/n. a deficit; aLat. word.
DEFIER, va. to defy. O. Fr. desfier. It. dis-
fidare. For the etymology see de- and_/?er.
— Der. deft (verbal subst.), diftunce.
D6figurer, va. to disfigure. See figure.
DEFILE, sm. a pass, defile. See deftler (2).
DEFILER, va. to unthread. Seefil.
DEFILER, vn. to file off, defile. See file.—
Der. defile (a narrow way, through which
one must pass in file).
D§finer, va. to define; from L. definire.
— Der. deftnif indefini, definissdihle, iudefin-
issable.
D6finitif, adj. definitive; from L. defini-
tivus.
D6finition, sf. a definition ; from L. defi-
nitionem.
DEFLEURIR, vn. to shed blossoms ; va. to
blight. See fleur.
D6florer, va. to deflower; fromL. deflo-
rare.
DEFONCER, va. to stave in, dig up. See
fond. — Der. defoncement.
DEFORMER, va. to deform. See forme. —
Der. deforma.t\on.
DEFRAYER, va. to defray. Seefrais.
DEFRICHER, va. to clear (of ground). See
friche. — Der. defrichement.
DEFROQUER, va. to unfrock.— Der. de-
froque (verbal subst.).
D6funt, adj. dead, defunct ; from L. de-
functus.
DEGAGER, va. to redeem a pledge. See
jgager. — Der. degagement.
DEGAINER, va. to unsheath. See game. —
Der. degaine (verbal subst.).
DEGARNIR, va. to unfurnish, unrig, strip.
Stegarnir.
DEGAT, sm. damage, depredation; verbal
subst. of O. Fr. degater. See gater.
DEGELER, va. to thaw. See geler. — Der.
degel (verbal subst.).
Degen^rer, va. to degenerate; from L. de-
generare. — Der. degener^Xion.
Degenerescence, s/". degeneracy; from
io8
DSGL UTITION— DELIMITER.
d^g^nirescent, from L. degenerescen-
tem* (degenerescere*) from degene-
rare.
Deglutition, sf. deglutition; from L. de-
glutitionem, from deglutire.
DEGOISER, va. to chirp, chatter. See
gosier.
DEGORGER, va. to disgorge, vomit. See
J^orge.
DEGOURDIR, va. to take off the stiffness,
sharpen, brighten. See gourd.
DEGOOT, sm. disgust. O. Fr. desgoust, It.
disgusto. See de- and gout. — Der. de-
gouttx.
DEGO UTTER, vn. to drop, trickle. See
goutte.
D6grader, va. to degrade; from L. degra-
dare. — Der. degrad&\.ion.
DEGRAFER, va. to unhook. See agrafer.
DEGRAISSER, va. to skim off the fat, scour,
fleece. See graisse. — Der. degraisseur, de-
graissige.
DEGRE, sm. a step. Prov. degrat. This
word answers to a type degradus*, compd.
of de- and gradus. For loss of d see
alouette ; for & = e see § 54.
DEGREVER, va. to reduce (a tax). See
^rever. — Der. degrevement,
DEGRINGOLER, vn. to tumble down. Origin
unknown.
DEGRISER, va. to sober. See griser.
DEGROSSIR, va. to rough-hew. See
grosstr.
DEGUENILLE, adj. tattered. See guenille.
DEGUERPIR, va. to give up, quit ; vn. to
pack off; compd, of de- and O. Fr. verb
guerpir to abandon, which is in medieval
Lat. -werpire, a word of Germ, origin,
Scand. verpa. For yr = gu see gaine. —
Der. deguerpissement.
DEGUISER, va. to disguise. See guise.' —
Der. deguisement.
D6guster, va. to taste; from L. degus-
tare. — Der. degusta.tion, degustateur.
Dehiscence, sf. (Bot.) dehiscence ; from L.
^dehiscentia* (dehiscere).
DEHONTE, adj. shameless. See honte.
DEHORS, adj. outside, without. See hors.
Deicide.sra. deicide(used of the Jews); from
L. deicida*.
D6ifier, va. to deify ; from L. deificare. —
Der. cfe'//?cation.
Deisme, sm. deism; from L. Deus, with
suffix -isme. — Der. deiste.
D6it6, sf. a deity ; from L. deitatem.
DEJA, adv. already. O. Fr. desja. See des
and ja.
Dejection, sf. dejection; from L. dejec-
tionem.
DEJETER, va. to warp, make crooked ; from
L. dejectare. For ct=»/ see § 168.
DEJEONER, vn. to breakfast. O. Fr. des-
jeuner. See d6- and jeiiner, lit. to break
one's fast. For the contraction in mean-
ing see § 12. — Der. dejeuner {sm.).
DEJOINDRE, va. to disjoin. Seejoindre.
DEJOUER, va. to baffle, frustrate. Seejouer.
DEJUCHER, vn. to leave the roost. Seejucher.
DELA, prep, beyond, on the other side.
See la.
f Deiabrer, va. to dilapidate, destroy, ruin.
O. Fr. deslabrer, from It., Milanese disla-
brare. — Der. delabrement.
DELAI, sm. delay. See delayer.
DELAISSER, va. to abandon, forsake. See
laisser. — Der. delaissement.
DELASSER, va. to refresh, relax. See las.
— Der. delassement. ^'"^
Deiateur, sm. an informer; from L. de-
latorem.
Delation, sf. delation, information ; from L.
delationem.
DELAYER, va. to dilute ; from L. dilatare.
For loss of medial t see abbaye; for i = e
see mettre. The change of sense from
dilatare, to dilate, broaden, to that of
delayer is seen in the phrase delayer un
discours. Delayer is a doublet of dilater,
q. v.— Der. delai (verbal subst. of delayer,
in its sense of extension ; delai being an
extension of time granted).
Deiecter, va. to delight ; from L, delectare.
— Der. delectation, delectable.
Deieguer, va. to delegate, commission;
from L. delegare. — Der. delegation.
Deleter©, adj. deleterious; from Gr. SrjXij-
TTJptOS.
Deiiberer, vn. to deliberate; from L. de-
liberare. — Der. deliberation, deliberatxf.
Delicat, adj. delicate; from L. delicatus.
Delicat is a doublet of delie, q. v. — Der. in-
delicat, delicatesse.
Deiices, sf. pi. delights, pleasures ; from L.
deljciae. — Der, delicieux.
DELIE, adj. fine, slender, delicate, as in un
fX delie, un style delie, etc, ; from L. deli-
catus. For loss of medial c see affouage ;
for -atus = e see § 201. Delie is a
doublet of delicat, q. v.
DELIE, partic of delier, unbound.
DELIER, va. to unbind. O. Fr. deslier. See
de- and Her.
Delimiter, va. to fix boundaries ; from L.
delimitare. — Der. delimitation.
BtLINtA TION — DSMORDRE.
109
Delineation, sf. delineation; from L, de-
lineationem, from delineare.
Delinquant, sm. a delinquent ; from L.
delinquentem.
D6lire, sm. delirium; from L. delirium.
Der. delirer.
Delit, sm. a crime, offence; from L. de-
lictum,
DELIVRER, va. to deliver, free; from £.
deliberare*, compd. of liberare. De-
liber^re, regularly contrd. (see § 52)
into delib'rare, becomes delivrer (see
avant and § 113). — Der. delivriLnce.
DELOGER, vn to remove, get away ; va. to
dislodge. See loger.
DELOYAL, adj. disloyal, false. O. Fr. des-
loyal. It. disleale, from de- (q. v.) and loyal.
Der. cfe/qyaut^ (see de- and loyaute).
DELUGE, sm. a deluge, flood. It. diluvio,
from L. diluvium. For consonification
of iu into ge (diluyjum) and for vj ^7
see Hist. Gram. p. 65 ; for i = e see mettre.
DELURE, adj. disenchanted. See § 8 and
leurre.
Demagogue, sm. a demagogue ; from Gr.
Srjimy or/OS. — Der. demagogic, demagog-
ique.
DEMAIN, adv. to-morrow. Prov. demon. It.
dimane; from L. de-mane*, compd. of
mand. For a = m see aigle. — Der. len-
demain (in O. Fr. Vendemain, as in It. it is
Vindomani ; a form compd. of en and de-
main). In the 14th cent, the article le by a
singular misunderstanding became attached
to the body of the word (see lierre) and
produced the sm. lendemain, which in its
turn is again preceded by the article (le len-
demain).
DEMANDER, va. to ask ; from L. deman-
dare. — Der. demands (verbal subst.), de-
mandewT, demanderesse.
DEMANGER, vn. to itch. See manger.—
Der. demangeaison.
DEMANTELER, va. to dismantle, i.e. to take
off the mantle, then to strip a town of its
protection by destroying its walls. — Der.
demantel ement.
D^mantibuler, va. to break. O. Fr, de-
mandibuler, properly to break the jaw ;
/rom de- (q. v.) and mandibula.
DEMARCATION, sf. demarcation. See mar-
qtter.
DEMARCHE, sf. gait, bearing, step. See
marche.
DEMARIER, va. to unmarry. See marier.
DEMARQUER, va. to unmark, take out a
mark. See marquer.
DEMARRER, va. to unmoor. See amarrer.
DEMASQUER, va. to unmask. See masque.
DEMELER, va. to disentangle. See de- and
meler. — Der. demel, demeloix.
DEMEMBRER, va. to dismember. See mem-
bre.—DeT. detnembrement.
DEMENAGER, va. to remove. See menage.
— Der. demenagement.
D6nience, s/". madness; from L. dementia.
DEMENER, va. to kick, struggle. See mener.
DEMENTIR, va. to contradict, deny. O. Fr.
desmentir. See de- and mentir. — Der. de-
menti.
Dein6riter, vn. to do amiss. See meriter.
_;— Der. demerile (verbal subst.).
DEMESURE, adj. unmeasured, huge. See
mestire.
DEMETTRE, va. to dislocate, dismiss. See
mettre.
DEMEURER, vn. to dwell, live. It. dimo-
rare, from L. demorari, found in sense of
tarrying, dwelling, in the Theodosian Code.
— Der. demeure (verbal subst.), au demeur-
ant.
DEMI, adj. half; from L. dimidius. For
loss of medial d see alouette ; for atonic
i = e see mettre.
Demission, sf. resignation (of an ofBce,etc.);
introd. in 1 6th cent, from L. demis-
sion em. — Der. demissionna.ire.
D^mocratie, sf. democracy ; from Gr.
SrjfjLOKpaTia. — Der. democrate, democrat-
ique.
DEMOISELLE, sf. a damsel, young lady. See
damoiseau. Demoiselle is a doublet of
dozelle.
D6niolir, va. to demolish; from L. de-
moliri. — Der. c?emo/isseur, demolition, (L.
demolitionem).
D^mon, sm. a demon ; from L. daemonem.
— Der. Je'mowiaque.
D6nionetiser, va. to alter the value of a
coin, call it in ; from de- and mo net a.
D6monstratif, adj. demonstrative ; from
L. demonstrativus.
Demonstration, sf a demonstration,
proof; from L. demonstrationem.
Demonstrateur, sm. a demonstrator ;
from L. demonstratorem.
DEMONTER, va. to unhorse, dismount (a
rider). See de- and monter.
DEMONTRER, va. to demonstrate. O. Fr.
demonstrer, from L. dem,onstrare. For
loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 81. — Der. de-
mows^able.
DEMORDRE, vn. to let go (grip), swerve
from. See de- and mordre.
no
LENA IRE — DEpENSER .
Denedre, adj . denary; from L. denarius.
Denaire is a doublet of denier, q. v.
DENATURER, va. to alter the nature of.
See nature.
D6n6gation, sf. denial; from L. denega-
tionem.
DENI, stn. a refusal (law term). See dinier.
DENICHER, va. to take out of a niche, out
of a nest. See nicher. — Der. denichem.
DENIER, >sm. a denarius, denier (-J^ of a sou),
mite; from L. denarius. For -arius
= 'ier see § 198. Denier is a doublet of
denaire.
DENIER, va. to deny, refuse ; from L. de-
negare. For loss of medial g see allier ;
for e = i see § 58. — Der. d^ni (verbal
subst.).
D6liigrer, va. to revile, blacken (character,
etc.); from L. denigrare. — Der. denigre-
ment.
DENOMBRER, va. to number; from L.
dentunerare. For numerare = «om6rer
see nombre. — Der. denombrement.
I>6noininatif, adj. denominative ; from L.
denominativus.
D^nominateur, stn. a denominator ; from
L. denominatorem.
Denomination, sf. a denomination ; from
L. denominationem.
DENOMMER, va. to name (in a deed) ; from
L. denominare. For letter-changes see
nommer.
DENONCER, va. to denounce; from L.
demintiare. For nxintiare = noncer see
annoncer.
D§nonciateur, $m. a denunciator, in-
former; from L. denuntiatorem.
D6nonciation,s/". a denouncement, declara-
tion ; from L. denuntiationem.
D6noter, va. to denote, describe ; from L.
jienotare.
DENOUER, va. to untie, unravel. See dc-
and nouer. — Der. denotement.
DENREE,s^. food, commodity; from late L.de-
nerata, found in the Capitularies of Charles
the Bald : * Ministri Reip. provideant, ne
ilH qui panem ... per deneratas . . . ven-
dunt.' Originally merchandise generally, and
specially such goods as were worth a denier.
Similarly Sp. has dinerada, from dinero.
From denier came O. Fr. deneree, just as
from panier came panneree. Deneree is
contrd. into den'ree, denree. Similarly in
Bavaria pfenningwerth properly means a
pfenning's worth of anything. For loss of
the § (denSrdta) see § 52; for -ata = -ee
see § 201.
Dense, adj. dense; from L. densus. — Der.
dens'xi^.
DENT, 5/ a tooth ; from L. dentem.— Der.
eudent(\ ^dentk, dentier, dentiste, dentcWe.
Dentaire, adj. dental; from L. dentarius.
Dentaire is a doublet of O. Fr. dentier.
DENTELLE, sf. lace, properly a little tooth.
— Der. dentel6, dentelme.
Dentifrice, stn. dentifrice, tooth-powder;
from L. dentifricium (tooth-powder, in
Pliny).
Dentition, s/. dentition; from L. denti-
tionem.
D6nuder, va. to denude, lay bare; from
L. denudare.
DENUER, va. to deprive, strip ; from L.
denudare, by loss of medial d, see ac-
cabler. — Der. rfeWment.
DEPAREILLER, va. to render incomplete,
spoil a pair. See pariel.
DEPARER, va. to strip. See parer.
DEPARLER, va. to cease speaking. See
parler.
DEPARTEMENT, sm. a department. See
departir.
DEPARTIR, va. to distribute. O. Fr. des-
partir, from L. dispartire. Fordis = </e
see de. — Der. depart (verbal subst.), de-
partement.
DEPASSER, va. to pass by, go beyond. See
passer.
DEPAYSER, va. to send abroad, expatriate.
See pays.
DEP]&CER, va. to break up (into pieces). See
piece.
DEPECHER, va. to despatch, hasten. See
empecker. — Der. d^peche (verbal subst.).
DEPEINDRE, va. to depict, paint, describe ;
from L. depingere. For -ingere = -eindre
see ceindre.
DEPENDRE, va. to take down (from a
j;ibbet). See de- and pendre.
DEPENDRE, vn. to be dependent (on);
from L. dependere. For changes see
pendre. Notice the displacement of the
accent from dependere to dependere,
whence the form dependre, not dependoir.
(Hist. Gram. p. 133.)
DEPENDRE, va. to spend ; from L. depen-
jiere. For loss of e see § 51.
DEPENS, sm. pi. expense, cost, charge. See
depenser.
DEPENSE, sf. expense, outlay. See depenser.
DEPENSER, va. to spend. O. Fr. despenser,
from L. dispensare. For 6is = de- see
de-. Depenser is a doublet of dispenser,
q. V. — Der. depens, depense, depensitx.
D^PERDITION — DERNIER.
Ill
Deperdition, sf. loss, waste; from L. de-
perditionem*, from deperdere.
D6p6rir, vn. to perish utterly; from L, de-
peri re. — Der. c?e/)enssement.
DEPftTRER, va. to disengage, extricate.
O. Fr. despestrer, the opposite of einpetrer,
O. Fr. empestrer. Empetrer signifies pro-
perly to hobble a horse while he feeds
afield, and depetrer is to free his legs from
the bonds. These words come from medi-
eval Lat. pastorium*, a clog for horses at
pasture. Pastorium (der. through pas-
tum, from pascere) is common in this
sense in the Germanic Laws: 'Si quis in ex-
ercitu aliquid furaverit, pastorium, capis-
trum, frenum,' etc. (Lex Bavar. tit. IL vi. i).
So also in the Lex Langobard. tit. L xx. 5 :
' Si quis pastorium de caballo alieno tu-
lerit.' Pastorium, by means of the two
compounds, pastoriare *, dispastoriare *,
has produced the two. O. Fr. verbs, empes-
trer, despestrer, by changing (i) im. into
in, then into en, see mettre ; (2) dis
into des, then de, see de- ; (3) and pas-
toriare into pestrer, by dropping the o,
see § 52, whence the modern form pttrer.
For loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 81 ; for
a = «, see § 54.
DEPEUPLER, va. to depopulate. See peupler.
— Der. depeuplement.
D6piler, va. to take the hair off; from
^L. depilare. — Der. c?e/>/7ation, d4pila.toire.
DEPISTER, va. to track, hunt out. See piste.
DEPIT, sm. despite, vexation. O. Fr. despit,
from L. despectus. For des = de see de- ;
for e = t see § 59 ; for ct = / see § 168.
— Der. depitex.
DEPLACER, va. to displace. See place.—
Der. deplacemenU
DEPLAIRE, va. to displease. See plaire. —
Der. deplaisiT, deplaisa.nt.
DEPLIER, va. to unfold, open. See de- and
plier.
D6plorer, va. to deplore; from L. deplo-
rare. — Der. deplorable.
DEPLOYER, va. to unroll. See de- and
ployer. — Der. deploiement.
DEPLUMER, va. to pluck (a bird). See de-
and plume.
Depopulation, sf. depopulation; from L.
depopulationem.
D6porter, va. to deport, transport ; from L.
deport are. — Der. deport, deportation, de-
^portement.
DEPOSER, va. to depose. See poser.
Depositaire, sm. a depositary, guardian,
confidant; from L. depositarius.
Depositeur, sm. a depositor; from L. de-
positorem.
Deposition, sf. deposition; from L. depo-
sitionem.
D6poss§der, va. to dispossess. See posse-
der.
DEPOUILLER, va. to strip, spoil. O. Fr.
despouiller, from L. despoliare. For o
= ou see affouage ; for li = ill see ail ;
for loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 81. — Der.
depouille (verbal subst.), depotiillement.
DEPOURVOIR, va. to deprive, strip. See
pourvoir. — Der. depourvu.
Depraver, va. to deprave, vitiate; from L.
depravare. — Der. depravation.
D6pr6cier, va. to depreciate; from L. de-
pretiare. Deprecier is a doublet of de-
priser. — Der. depreciation.
D6pr6dation, sf. depredation; from L.
depraedationem.
Depression, sf. depression; from L. de-
pressionem.
D6prinier, va. to depress; from L. depri-
mere.
DEPUIS, prep, since. See puis.
D6purer, va. (Chem.) to depurate, purify ;
from L. depurare. — Der. depuration, de-
puratiL
D§puter, va. to depute; from L. depu-
tare. — Der. deputation, depute.
DERACINER, va. to uproot. See racine.
DERAILLER, vn. to run off the rails. See
rail.
DERAISON, sf. unreason. See raison. —
Der. deraisonner, deraisonnahie.
DERANGER, va. to derange, displace. See
ranger. — Der. derangement.
DERECHEF, adv. again, afresh; formerly
written de rechef compound of re, marking
repetition, and chef, meaning end, ex-
tremity. We have seen under achever the
medieval phrase venir a chef for venir a
hout. See chef.
DEREGLER, va. to derange, disorder. See
regie. — Der. dereglement.
Derision, sf. derision; from L. derisi-
onem.
Derisoire, adj. derisive; from L. deriso-
rius.
D6river, vn. to leave shore, drift ; to spring,
derive; va. to turn off (a stream). — Der.
derive (verbal subst.), derivation, deriv-
atif.
Derme, sm. skin ; from Gr. Sippia.
DERNIER, adj. last; formerly derrenier,
derrainier, der. from O. Fr. derrain. Der-
rain answers to L. deretranus*, deriv. of
112
D^R OBER — DESPO TE,
de-retro, properly one who walks behind.
DerStrdnus, contrd. regularly (see § 52)
into dertr'anus, softens tr into dr, then
rr (see § 168), and changes a into ai (see
aigle).
DfiROBER, va. to rob, steal. See robe.
D6roger, vn. to derogate (from) ; from L.
^derogare. — Der. derogation.
DEROULER, va. to unroll, spread out. See
rouler.
DfiROUTE, sf. rout, defeat. O.Fr. des-
route, from L. disrupta, from disrum-
pere, to break up an army in battle. For
dis = de see de- ; for u = o« see § 90 ;
for pt = / see acheter.
DEROUTER, va. to lead astray. See route.
DEKKltKE, prep and adv. behind; from L.
de retro*. ' Visa itaque turba de retro
et ab ante adorantes dicite ' (Baruch vi. 5).
For retro = riere see arriere.
DES, art.gen.pl. of the; contr. oi dels = deles.
See for details Hist. Gram. p. 10 1.
Y)r.S,prep. from; from L. deipso, sc. tem-
pore, De-ipso, contrd, into d'ipso, be-
comes dis. For i = e see mettre ; for ps = s
jee caisse.
DESAIMER, va. to cease loving. See de-
^and aimer.
DESAPPOINTER, va. to disappoint. See de-
and appointer. — Der, desappointement.
DfiSARROI, sm. disarray, confusion ; compd.
of des (see de-) and O, Fr. arroi. Des-
arroi therefore = des-ordre. A rroi is a
compd. of O. Fr. roi, just as arranger is of
ranger, arrondir of rond, etc. Roi, meaning
in O. Fr. order, measure (a sense which re-
mains in the phrase pied de roi), answers to
the It, root redo*, to medieval L, redum*,
and comes from Germ, source, Dan. rede,
Swed, reda, to set in order,
+ D6sastre, sm. a disaster; introd, in
1 6th cent, from It. desastro. — Der, desas-
trcMX.
DESAVANTAGE, sm. a disadvantage. See
avantage.
DESAVEU, sm. a disavowal. See aveu.
DESAVOUER, va. to disavow. See avouer.
DESCELLER, va. to unfasten, unseal. See
sceller.
DESCENDRE, vn. to descend ; from L. de-
sc^nd§re. For loss of g see § 51, — Der,
descents (partic. subst., see ahsoute), de-
scendance, redescendre, condescendre.
Descriptif, adj. descriptive; from L. de-
scriptivus.
Description, s/. a description; from L,
descriptionem.
DfiSEMPARER, va. and n. to quit, go away.
See emparer.
DESERT, adj. deserted ; from L, desertus,
— Der, dherttr, deserteur, desertion.
DESERT, sm. a desert ; from L. desertum,
DESESPERER, vn. to despair. See d4- and
esperer.
DESESPOIR, sm. despair. See de- and
espoir.
DESHABILLER, va. to undress. See d4-
and habiller.
DESHERENCE, sf. escheat. See hoir.
DESHONNETE, adj. immodest. See hon-
nete.
DESHONNEUR, sm. dishonour. See hon-
neur.
DESHONORER, va. to dishonour. See hon-
orer.
Designer, va. to designate, describe ; from
L. designare. Designer is a doublet of
dessiner, q. v, — Der, designation.
Desinence, sf. (Gram,) a desinence, termin-
ation; from L. desinentia.
DESINTERESSER, va. to buy out (creditors,
etc.). See de- and interesser. — Der, desin-
teressement.
tD§sinvolture, sf. ease of carriage;
from It. disinvoltura.
DESIR, sm. desire, wish. See desirer.
DESIRER, va. to desire. O.Fr, desirrer, from
L. desiderare, Desiderdre, contrd, regu-
larly (see § 52) into desid'rare, becomes
desirer. For 6x = rr = r see § 168, — Der.
desir (verbal subst,), desir&nx, desirabXt.
D^sister (Se), vpr. to desist ; from L, de-
sist ere, — Der, desistemtnt.
DESGEUVRER, va. to throw out of work.
See ceuvre. — Der, desceuvrement.
D6soler, va. to desolate, ravage; from L.
desolari. — Der, desohnt, desolation.
D6sopiler, va. (Med,) to empty, clear out ;
from L, dis-oppilare*,
DfiSORDONNE, adj. disorderly. See de-
and ordonner.
DESORDRE, sm. disorder. See de- and
ordre.
DESORMAIS, adv. henceforth, O, Fr. des
ore mais. Ore is from L. hora; mais from
L, magis, Des ore mais properly means
from this hour forward, i, e, dating from
this present hour. For etymology see des,
or, and mais. Similarly dormavant, q, v.,
which was in O. Fr. d'ore en avant, means
from this present hour forward,
DESOSSER, va. to bone. See os.
Despote, sm. a despot ; from Gr, ScCTTc^riys.
— Der. despotiqae, despotisme.
DESSAISIR — DETROIT,
113
DESSAISIR, va. to dispossess. See saisir. —
— Der. rfessa/sissemetit.
DESSECHER, va. to dry up. See seeker.—
Der. dessechement.
DESSEIN, sm. design. See dessin, which is
its doublet.
DESSERT, sm. dessert. See desservir.
DESSERVANT, sm. an officiating priest.
See desservir.
DESSERVIR, va.to clear away (after dinner).
See servir. — Der. desservnr\t, dessert and
desserie (partic. subst, of desservir, see
absoute ; similarly O. Fr. had sert from
servir^.
Dessiceation, sf. desiccation; from L.
dessiccationem.
DESSILLER, va. to open (eyelids). On this
word, written in O. Fr. deciller, see § 13
and oil.
DESSIN, sm. design, drawing. See dessiner.
DESSINER, va. to draw; in Regnier dessigner.
It. disegnare, from L. designare. For
8 — ss, cp. vessica, vessie; pulsare, pous-
ser. For gn = w see assener. Dessiner is
a doublet of designer, q. v.
DESSOUS, adv. below. See sous.
DESSUS, adv. above. See sus.
DESTIN, sm. destiny. See destiner.
Destination, sf. destination ; from L.
destinationem.
DESTINEE, sf. destiny. See destiner.
DESTINER, va. to destine, doom ; from L.
destinare.— Der. destin (verbal subst.),
destines (partic. subst.).
Destituer, va. to dismiss ; from L. desti-
tuere. — Der. destitution.
DESTRIER, sm. a knight's warhorse, a horse
led by the squire on his right hand (dextra),
whence the deriv. dextrarius for a war-
horse in medieval texts, as in an llth-cent.
chronicle we read ' equo ejus militari, quem
dextrariura vocant, ablato.' For x = s
see ajouter; for -arius = -zer see § 198.
Destructeur, sm. a destroyer ; from L. de-
structorem.
Destructible, adj. destructible; from L.
destructibilis. — Der. indestructible.
Destructif, adj. destructive; from L. de-
structivus.
Destruction, sf destruction; from L.
destructionem.
Desuetude, sf. desuetude, disuse ; from L.
jiesuetudinem.
DETACHER, va. to unfasten. See attacker.
— Der. deiachement.
DETAILLER, va. to cut up. See tailler.—
Der. detail (verbal subst.), detailhnX.
DETALER, va. to clear away, pack up. See
etal.
DETEINDRE, va. to take colour from ; vn.
to lose colour. See teindre.
DETELER, va. to unyoke. See atteler.
DETENDRE, va. to unbend, relax. See
tendre. —Der. detente (partic. subst., see ah-
soute).
DETENIR, va. to detain ; from L: detinere.
For atonic i = e see mettre ; for e = i see
§ 59 — Der. detenu.
Detenteur, sm. a holder of property ; from
L. detentorem.
Detention, sf. detention; from L, deten-
tionem. «
Deterger, va. to clean (a wound) ; from L.
detergere.
Deteriorer, va. to deface, damage ; from
L. deteriorare. — Der. deteriora.tion.
Determiner, va. to settle, determine ; from
L, determinare. — Der. determination.
D6terrer, va, to dig up, exhume. See
terre.
Detersif, adj. detersive; from L. deter-
sivus*, from detersus, p.p. of detergere.
D6tester, va. to detest ; from L. detestari.
— Der. detestMe.
Detoner, vn. to detonate; from L. de-
Jtonare. — Der. detonation.
DETONNER, vn. to sing out of tune. See
ton.
Detorquer, va. to twist, wrest; from L.
detorquere.
DETORS, adj. untwisted. See tordre.
DETOURNER, va. to turn away. See tour-
ner Der. detour (verbal subst.), detourne-
ment,
Detracteur, sm. a detractor; from L. de-
tractorem.
DETRAQUER, va. to spoil the paces (of a
horse, etc.), disorder. See traquer.
DETREMPER, va. to dilute. See tremper.—
Der. detrempe (verbal subst.")
DETRESSE, sf. distress. O. Fr. destrece,
oppression, verbal subst. of destrecer, means
to oppress, and represents the L. de-
strictiare*, derived regularly from de-
strictus, p.p. of destringere. De-
strictiare becomes destrecer. For ct = /
see § 168 ; for -tiare = -cer see ngencer and
§ 264; fori=esee mettre. Next destrece
becomes detresse. For loss of s see Hist.
Gram. p. 81 ; for c = ss see agencer.
Detriment, sm. detriment, loss ; from L,
detrimentum,
DETROIT, sm. a strait. O. Fr. destroit, from
L. districtus. In medieval documents we
114
DSTR UIRE — DIABLE.
find • districtus fluvii ' (rendered by Du-
cange as a place where a stream is crossed).
Distriotus becomes detroit as strictus
becomes ^troit. For dia = di see de- ; for
iot =» oit see attrait. Detroit is a doublet
oi district, q. v.
DETRUIRE, va. to destroy. O. Fr. destruire,
from L. destruSre. For loss of s see
Hist. Gram. p. 8l ; for e = f see § 59.
DETTE, sf. a debt ; from L. d6bita, what
is due, from debitum. For loss of i
(d6b'ta) see § 51; for bt = « see § 168.
— Der. endetter.
DEUIL, sm. mourning, grief. See douloir.
DEUXf num. adj. two ; from L. duos. For
uo = see § 90 ; then for o = eu see cueiller ;
for s = « cp sposus, epoux ; russus, roux;
tnssi s, toux; cor ossus*, creux ; otiosus,
oiseux ; and for suffix in osus = eux see
§ 229. Deux is a doublet of duo. — Der.
deux\Qme.
DEVALER, va. to let down, lower. See aval.
DEVALISER, va. to rifle, plunder. See
valise.
DEVANCER, va. to precede. See devant. —
Der. devancieT.
DEVANT, prep, and adv. before, in front.
O. Fr. davant (d'avant), compd. of de and
avant, q. v. — Der. devancer.
IJ6vaster, va. to devastate; from L. de-
vast a re. — Der. t/e'i/as/ation, devastAtem.
DEVELOPPER, va. to develop. Formed
from a radical ' velop.' Origin unknown.
Cp. envelopper, q.v. — Der. developpement.
DEVENIR, vn. to become; from L. de-
venire.
DEVERGONDE, adj. dissolute; partic. of
O. Fr. verb devergonder, to lose all shame ;
compd. of de (q. v.) and vergonder, which
from L. verecunddri. Verecundari,
contrd. regularly (see § 53) into ver'-
cundari, becomes vergonder. For c=g
see adjuger ; for u = see annoncer Der.
devergond2igt.
DEVERS, prep, towards. See vers.
DEVERS, adj. leaning; from L. deversus.
— Der. deversei (to bend a piece of wood).
DEVERSER, vn. to lean, bend. See verser.—
Der. deversoir.
DEVIDER, va. to wind off. O. Fr. desvider ;
see vide. Devider properly means to make
the spindle bare {vide) of wool. — Der.
devidok.
Deviation, ./.deviation; from L. devia-
tionem.
DEVIER, vn. to deviate. O. Fr. desvier, from
L. de-ex- viare* (to leave the right path).
See under dS- and vote. Ddvier is a doublet
of devoyer.
DEVIN, sm. a diviner ; from L. divinus. —
Der. deviner, devineur, rfmweresse.
DEVIS, sm. (I) chat, talk; {2\ estimate;
verbal subst. of deviser, signifying in
O. Fr. to distribute, regulate, whence the
meaning of devis as an estimate of all
costs of a building.
DE VISAGER, va. to scratch the face (of one).
See visage.
DEVISE, sf. device ; verbal subst. of deviser,
O. Fr. to distribute. Devise was first a
heraldic term, meaning a division or part
of a shield in which some emblematical
figure ( = corps de la devise) was inscribed,
and above a legend or sentence explaining it
(technically called dme de la devise). This
motto, which was originally only a part
of the device, presently took to itself the
name of the whole.
DEVISER, va. to chat, talk; in O. Fr. to
regulate ; from L. divisare. Divisare
is a frequent, of dividere, formed in the
usual way from the p.p. divisus. For i = e
see mettre. Deviser is a doublet of diviser.
^ — Der. devis, devise.
DEVISSER, va. to unscrew. See vis.
DEVOIEMENT, sm. looseness, diarrhoea. See
devoyer.
DEVOILER, va. to unveil. See voile.
DEVOIR, va. to owe, be in debt ; from L.
debere. For b = v see avant and § 113 ;
for e = oi see accroire and § 61. — Der. de-
voir (verbal subst.).
D6volu, adj. vested, devolved ; from L. de-
volutus.
D6vorer, va. to devour; from L. devo-
rare.
D6vot, adj. devoted, pious; from L. devo-
tus. — Der. devotieux.
Devotion, sf. devotion; from L. devo-
tionem.
DEVOUER, va. to devote, consecrate ; from
L. devotare. For loss of medial t see
abhaye ; for o = ou see affouage. — Der. de-
vouem&nX.
DEVOYER, va. to mislead. See voie.— T>tr.
devoiement.
Dexter it6, sf. dexterity; fromL. dexteri-
tatem.
Dextre, sf. the right hand ; from L. dextra.
Diabdte, sm. (Med.) diabetes; from Gr.
Siap-ffTrjs.
DIABLE, sm. the devil ; from L. di&bolus.
For regular loss of 6 see § 52 and ancre.
— Der. diablene, diable$se, diablotin.
DIABOLIQUE—DILEMME.
115
Diabolique, ac?/. diabolical ; from L. dia-
bolicus.
Diaconat, sm. the diaconate; from L. dia-
conatus (in St. Jerome).
Diaconesse, sf. a deaconess; from L. dia-
conissa (in St. Jerome).
DIACRE, sm. a deacon. O. Fr. diacne, from
L. diaconus (in Tertullian). Diaconus
is contrd. regularly (see § 52 and ancre)
into diac'nus. For n = r see coffre.
Diaddrae, sm. a diadem ; from L. diadema.
Diagnostic, sm. (Med.) diagnostic; from
adj. diagnostique, from Gr. SiayvoicrriKSs.
Diagonal, adj. diagonal; from L. diagon-
alis.
Dialecte, sm. a dialect ; fromL. dialectus.
— Der. dialect^].
Dialectique, sf. dialectics; from L. dia-
lectica.
Dialogue, sf. a dialogue ; from L. dialogus.
Diamant, sm. a diamond ; from It. dia-
mante. Diamant is a doublet oi aimant,
adamant, q, v.
Diamdtre, sm. a diameter ; from Gr. Stci-
fifTpos. — Der. diametraX, diametr^lement.
f Diane, s/. a morning gun, reveille ; introd.
in 1 6th cent, from Sp. diana.
+ Diapason, sm. diapason, octave; fromL.
diapason.
Diaphane, adj. diaphanous ; from Gr.
hia(pavus.
Diaphragme, sm. (Med.) the diaphragm ;
from L. diaphragma.
"tDiaprer, va. to diaper, variegate; me-
dieval diasprer, formed from O. Fr. subst.
diaspre (a stuff of jasper-colour). Diaspre is
from It. diaspro.
Diarrh6e, sf. (Med.) diarrhoea; from L.
diarrhoea.
Diath^se, s/. a disposition; fromGr.Sm^ects.
Diatribe, sf a diatribe, philippic ; from L,
diatriba.
Dietame, sm. (Bot.) dittany; from L. dic-
tamnus.
Dictateur, sm. a dictator; from L. dicta-
tore m. — Der. dictatonal.
Dictature, sf a dictature ; from L. dicta-
tura.
Dieter, va. to dictate; from L. dictare. —
Der. dictee (partic. subst.).
Diction, sf diction; from L. dictionem.
— Der. dictionn&ire.
+ Diet on, sm. a saying, bye-word, a word
corrupted from L. dictum. It is a doublet
of dit.
Didactique, adj. didactic; from Gr. 5i-
daKTlK6s.
Di^r^se, sf diaeresis ; from Gr. Siaipems.
Didse, sm. (Mus.) diesis, a sharp ; adj. sharp.
— Der. diestx.
Di§te, sf. (i) a diet, assembly ; from L.
diaeta*, an assembly on a fixed day, deriv.
of Gr. hlaira. (2) diet (food, etc.).
DIEU, sm. God ; in the Oaths of a. d. 842 Deo ;
from L. deus. From 9th-cent. deo comes
modern dieu. For eo = zo see abreger;
then for o = eu see accueillir Der. zdieu
(lit. A Dieu), for a Dieu soyezl which
was the complete form of the phrase in
O.Fr.
Diffamer, va. to defame; from L. diffa-
mare. — Der. diffamzitm, diffamz\o\rt.
Difference, s/. a difference; from L. differ-
entia.
Different, adj. different; from L. differ-
ent em. Differend is simply an orthogra-
phic alteration of the word.
DifPirer, va. (i) to put off, defer, (2) to
differ; from L. differre.
Diflacile, adj. difficult; from L. difficilis.
— Der. difficilemtnt.
Diflacult6, sf a difficulty; from L. diffi-
cult a tem. — Der. dijfficultvitMX.
fDifforme, adj. deformed; introd. in
15th cent, from It. difforme. — Der. difform- '
it^.
DifFus, adj. diffuse; from L. diffusus.
Dig6rer, va. to digest; from L. digerere.
Digestif, adj. digestive; from L. diges-
tivus*.
Digestion, sf digestion; from L. diges-
tionem.
Digitale, sf fox-glove, digitalis ; in botanical
Lat. digitalis purpurea.
Digne, adj. worthy; from L. dignus. —
Der. dignement.
Dignity, sf a dignity; from L. dignita-
tem. — Der. dignitn'iTe.
Digression, sf a digression; from L. di-
gressionem.
DIGUE, sf. an embankment, bank. O.Fr.
dicque, word of Germ, origin, Neth. dyk.
— Der. endiguer. '
Dilapider, va. to dilapidate, waste ; from L.
dilapidare. — Der. dilapidation, dilapid-
ateur.
Dilater, vfl. to dilate ; from L. dilatare. It
is a Aowhltloi delayer, q.v. — Der.rfz'/a^ation.
Dilatoire, adj. dilatory; from L. dila-
torius.
Dilection, sf affection; from L. dilec-
tionem.
Dilemme, sm. a dilemma ; from L. di-
lemma.
I 2
116
DILE TTANTE-'DISPENDIE UX,
t Dilettante, sm. a dilettante, amateur;
from It. dilettante. It is a doublet of de-
lecfant, q. v. — Der. dilettantisms.
Diligence,./, diligence; fromL.diligentia.
Diligent, adj. diligent; from L. diligen-
tem. — Der. diligenter.
Diluvien, adj. diluvian; from L. diluvia-
nus* from diluvium . — D er. znt^diluvien .
DIMANCHE, sm. Sunday. O. Fr. diemenche,
from L. dies-domiziica, the Lord's Day,
in St. Augustine and Tertullian. Domin-
ica loses its penult, i regularly (§ 51),
and becomes domin'ca. Die-dominica
having thus become die -domin'ca, loses
medial d (see accabler), and becomes O. Fr.
diemenche, whence dimanche. For ca = cA
see §§126 and 54; for in = e« see Hist.
Gram. p. 178. 'en = a« in modern Fr.
is a very rare change, see § 65, note I.
DIME, sf. tithe ; formerly disme, It. decima,
from L. decima (found in Varro). D6-
Cima loses its i regularly (§ 51), and is
contrd. to dec'ma, whence disme. For
e=t see § 59; for o = s seeamitie; for the
loss of s at a later time, see Hist. Gram,
p. 81. Dime is a doublet of decime, q. v.
Dimension, sf. dimension ; from L. di-
mensionem.
Diminuer, va. to diminish ; from L. di-
minuere.
Diminution, s/. diminution; from L. di-
minutionem.
Dinde, sm. a turkey ; a word of hist, origin
(§ .^3)> abbrev. of the phrase coq d'Inde.
— Der. dindon, dindonnea.\i.
DINER, vn. to dine ; formerly disner, in the
9th- cent. Lat. disnare *, in the Vatican
Glosses. Origin unknown. For loss of s
see Hist. Gram. p. 81. — Der. diner (sm.).
Diocdse, sm. a diocese; from L. diocesis,
found in Tertullian. — Der. diocesa.in.
Diphthongue, sf. a diphthong; from L.
diphthongus.
Diplomate, sm. a diplomatist. See di-
plome. — Der. diplomatic, diplomatique
Dipldme, sm. a diploma ; from L. diploma.
— Der. diplomate.
Diptyque, sm. a diptych : from L. dipty-
cha.
DIRE, va. to say ; from L. dicere. Di-
cSre, contrd. regularly (§51) into dic're,
becomes dire by reduction of cr to
r, see henir. — Der. dire (sm.), contrerf/re,
vnedire, d^dire, maurf/r, h^nir, xtdire, dit,
disenr, disexise.
Direct, adj. direct; from L. directus. It
is a doublet of droit, <j. v.
Directeur, sm. a director ; from L. direc-
torem (deriv. of directus).
Direction, sf. direction; from L. direc-
tionem.
Directoire, sm. a directory; from L. di-
rectorium (deriv. of director).
Diriger, va. to direct ; from L. dirigere.
Dirimant, arf/. invalidating ; from L. diri-
mentem, pres. part, of dirimere.
Discerner, va. to discern ; from L. dis-
cern ere. — Der. discernement.
Disciple, sm. a disciple; from L. discipulus.
Discipline, sf. discipline; from L. disci-
pi ina. — Der. discipliner. disciplinAire.
Discorder, vn. to be in a state of disagree-
ment ; from L. discordare. — Der. discord
(verbal subst.), discordzut (whence discord-
ance).
Discorde, §f. discord; from L. discordia.
DISCOURIR, vn. to expatiate, discourse;
from L. discurrere. For changes see
courir. — Der. discourexxx.
Discours, sm. a discourse; from L. dis-
cursus, found in the Theodosian Code.
Discret. adj. discreet ; from L. discretus.
Discretion, sf discretion, distinction ; from
L. discretionem. — Der. discretionriAixe.
Disculper, i/a. to exculpate; from L. dis-
culpare * compd. of culpare.
Discussion, sf. a discussion; from L. dis-
cussionem.
Discuter, va. to discuss; from L. dis-
cutere. — Der, discutzhXe, mdiscutzhXe.
Disert, adj. eloquent; from L. disertus.
DISETTE, sf dearth. Origin unknown.
Disgrace, sf disgrace. See grace. — Der.
disgrac'itx.
Disgracieux, adj. ungraceful, uncomely.
See gracieux.
DISJOINDRE, va. to disjoin ; from L. dis-
jungere. For changes seejoittdre.
Disjonction, sf disjunction; from L. dis-
junctionem.
Disloquer, va. to dislocate ; from dis (see
de-) and locare. Disloquer properly means
to displace ; so disloquer le bras, is to
throw the arm out of joint. — Der. disloc-
ation.
DISPARAtTRE, vn. to disappear. See pa-
raitre. — Der. dispar'ition (formed after ap-
parition).
Disparate, adj. incongruous; from L. dis-
paratus (in Boethius).
Disparition, sf disappearance. See dis-
paraitre.
Dispendieux, adj. expensive, burdensome ;
from L. dispendiosus.
DISPENSER — DIVA N.
117
Dispenser, va. to dispense, distribute ; from
L. dispensare, to grant, whence the use
of dispenser de = to give permission to one
not to do something, grant dispensation
to. Dispenser is a doublet of depenser,
q. V. — Der. dispense (verbal subst.).
Disperser, va. to disperse; from L. dis-
persare * a deriv. of dispersus, partic. of
dispergere.
Dispersion, sf. dispersion; from L. dis-
persionem.
Disponible, adj. disposable ; from L. dis-
ponibilis*, deriv. of disponere.
DISPOS, adj. disposed ; from L, dispositus.
For loss of the last two atonic syllables, see
§§ 5o> 51-
Disposer, va. to dispose. See poser. — Der.
mdispnser.
Disposition, sf. a disposition ; from L.
dispositionem . — Der. dispositif.
Disputer, va. to dispute; from L. dispu-
tare. — Der. dispute (verbal subst.).
Disque, sm. a disc: from L. discus. It is
a doublet of da^is, q. v.
Dissection, sf. a dissection; from L. dis-
sectionem.
Diss^miner, va. to disseminate, spread
abroad; from L. disseminare.
Dissension, sf. dissension; from L. dis-
sensionem.
Dissentiment, sm. dissent. See sentiment.
Diss^quer, va. to dissect; from L. disse-
care.
Dissertation, sf. a dissertation ; from L.
dissertationem.
Disserter, va. to make a dissertation ; from
L. dissertare.
Dissidence, sf. dissidence, disagreement;
from L. dissidentia.
Dissident, adj. dissident; from L. dissi-
dentem.
Dissimulation, ./. dissimulation ; from L.
dissimulationem. — Der. dissimulatenr.
Dissimuler, va. to dissimulate; from L.
dissimulare.
Dissipateur, sm. a dissipator, spender ;
from L. d issipatorem.
Dissipation, sf. dissipation ; from L. d issi-
pationem.
Dissiper, va. to dissipate; from L. dissi-
pare.
Dissolu, adj. dissolute; from L. disso-
lutus.
Dissolution, s/. dissolution ; from L. dis-
solutionem.
Dissolvant, adj. dissolvent; from L. dis-
solventem.
Dissoner, vn. to be dissonant ; from L.
dissonare. — Der. dissonznt, dissonance.
DISSOUDRE, va. to dissolve ; from L. dis-
solvere. For solveTe = soudre see ab-
soudre.
Dissuader, va. to dissuade; from L. dis-
suadere.
Dissuasion, sf. dissuasion; from L. dis-
suasionem.
Distance, sf distance; from L. dis-
tantia.
Distant, adj. distant; from L. distantem.
Distendre, va. to distend; from L. dis-
tendere.
Distiller, va. to distil; from L. dis-
tillare. — Der. distilhteur, distilhtion.
Distinct, adj. distinct; from L. dis-
tinctus.
Distinctif, adj. distinctive; from L. dis-
tinctivus.
Distinction, sf distinction; from L. dis-
tinctionem.
Distinguer, va. to distinguish; from L.
distinguere.
Distique, sm. a distich; from L. dis-
tichus.
Distraction, sf distraction; from L. dis-
tractionem.
DISTRAIRE, va. to distract; from L. dis-
trahere. For changes see traire.
DISTRAIT, adj. distracted; from L. dis-
tractus. For Qt = it see attrait.
Distribuer, va. to distribute; from L. dis-
tribuere.
Distributeur, sm. a distributer ; from L.
distributorem.
Distributif, adj. distributive ; from L.
distributivus*, from distribuere.
Distribution, sf distribution ; from L.
distributionem.
District, sf a district; from medieval L.
districtum, a territory under one juris-
diction. District is a doublet of detroit, q. v,
DIT, sm. a saying, maxim. See dire. It is
a doublet of dicton, q. v.
Dithjrrambe, sm. a dithyramb; from L,
dithyrambus.
+ Dito, adv. ditto ; from It. deito.
Diurnal, adj. diurnal; from L. diurnalis.
Its doublet is journal, q. v.
Diurne, adj. diurnal; from L. diurnus.
Its doublet IS jour, q. v.
Divaguer, vn. to wander hither and
thither; from L. divagari.
+ Divan, sw. a divan; a word of Oriental
origin, Ar. diouann. Its doublet is douane,
q.v.
ii8
DIVE— DOMINO.
Sive, adj. divine ; from L. diva.
Diverger, vn, to diverge; from L. diver-
gere.
Divers, adj. diverse; from L. di versus.
Diversifier, va. to diversify; from L. di-
versificare*, deriv. of diversus.
Diversion, sf. a diversion; from L. diver-
sionem.
Diversit6, sf. a diversity; from L. diver-
sitatem.
Divertir, va. to turn aside; from L. di-
vert ere. — Der. tfji/er/issement.
Dividende, sm. a dividend; from L. divi-
denda, from dividere.
Divin, flrf/. divine ; from L. divinus. Its
doublet is devin, q. v.
Divination, sf. divination ; from L. divin-
ationem.
Divinit6, sf. divinity ; from L. divini-
tatem.
Divis, adj. divided; from L. divisus.
Diviser, va. to divide; from L. divisare,
frequent, of dividere. Its doublet is de-
viser, q. V.
Diviseur, sm. a divisor; from L. divis-
orem.
Divisible, adj. divisible; from L. divis-
ibjlis.
Division, sf. a division; from L. divis-
ionem.
Divorce, sm. a divorce; from L. divor
tium.
Divulguer, va. to divulge; from L. divul-
gare.
DIX, num. adj. ten ; frdm L. decern. For
e = / see accomplir; for c = » see amide.
Der. dizzin, diznine, dixihmc (whose
doublet is dime).
Docile, adj. docile; from L, docilis.
Docility, sf. docility ; from L. docilitatem.
+ Dock, sm. a dock ; from Engl. dock.
Docte, adj. learned; from L. doctus.
Docteur, sm. a doctor; from L. doctor. —
Der. doctorat, doctoral.
Doctrine, sf. doctrine; from L. doctrina.
Document, sm. a document; from L.
documentum.
DODU, adj. plump. Origin unknown.
i'Doge, sm. a doge; from It. doge. Its
doublet is due, q. v. — Der. dogzt.
Dogmatique, adj. dogmatic; from L
dogmaticus.
Dogmatiser, vn. to dogmatise; from L.
dogmatizare.
Dogmatiste, sm. a dogmatist; from L
dogmatistes.
Dogme, sm. a dogma; from L. dogma.
+ Dogue, sm. a dog; from Engl. dog.
Gros chien d'Angleterre, says Menage in
the 17th cent.
DOIGT, sm. a finger ; from L. digitus.
Digitus, regularly contrd. (see § 51)
into dig*tu8, becomes doigt by changing
i into oi, see boire. Doigt is a doublet of
de, q. v. — Der. doigttx, doigixtx.
Dol, sm. deceit, cozenage; from L. dolus.
DOLEANCE, sf. complaint, grief; answering
to a verb doleir, which represents a Lat.
form dolicare.
DOLENT, adj. suffering; from L. do-
lentem.
Doler, va. to chip with an adze; from L.
dolare.
+ Dollar, sm. a dollar, from Engl, dollar.
+ Dolman, sm, a hussar's coat, a word
of Magyar origin. Hung, dolman. See
§33.
+ Dolmen, sm. a dolmen; a word of
Low Breton patois, introd. into Fr. towards
the end of the 18th cent. It is of Celtic
origin, Gael, tolmen, a stone table.
DOLOIRE, sm. an adze. O. Fr, doleoire,
from L. dolatoria, in Vegetius : 'cum
securibus et dolatoriis.' For loss of
medial t see abbaye ; doleoire = doloire is a
rare change.
DOM, sm. lord ; from L. dominus, which is
domnus in several Merov. documents.
For loss of i see §51; for inn = m see
§ 168, Dom is a doublet of dame^ q. v.
DOMAINE, sm. domain; from L. domi-
nium. For i = az, seen in daigne from
digno, see marraine. — Der. domamzX.
tD6me, sm. a dome; introd. about the
15th cent, from It. duomo.
Domesticity, sf. domesticity; from L.
domesticitatem*.
Dom.estique, adj. domestic; from L, do-
mesticus.
Domicile, sm. a domicile; from L. do-
mieilium. — Der. domiciliaiTe, domiciHer.
Dominateur, sm. a dominator; from L,
dominatorem.
Domination, sf. domination ; from L,
dominationem,
Dominer, va. to dominate; from L. domi-
nari.
Dominical, adj. dominical; from L. do-
minicalis, der. from dominus.
+ Domino, sm. a domino; from Sp. do-
mino, a black hood worn by priests. — Der.
domino (a game composed of pieces of
ivory, backed with black, and, so far, re-
sembling a domino).
DOMMA GE — DO ULOUREUX.
IT9
DOMMAGE, sm. damage; originally damage,
from L. damnaticum*, der. from dam-
num. For in.n = mm~m see § i68. —
Der. dommage'dhle, dedommager, endotn-
mager.
DOMPTER, va. to daunt; from L, domi-
tare, contrd. regularly (see § 52) into
dom.'tare : the intercalated p is euphonic.
— Der. dompttMT, domptahle, indompuhle.
DON, sm. a gift; from L. donum. — Der.
donation, c?owateur, c?o«ataire.
DONC, adv. then ; aphaeresis of O. Fr. adonc.
Adonc is from L. ad-tixnc, compd. of
tunc. For u = ow see annoncer.
DONJON, sm. a donjon, tower. Prov.
dompnhon, from medieval L. domni-
onem.*, a tower which dominates. Domni-
onem is regularly contrd. from domini-
6nem by loss of i, see § 52. Domini-
onem is a deriv. of dominium. From
domnionem we come to donjon. For mn
= m (domionem) see § 168; for io=_;o
see abreger ; for change of m into n
(domjonem) see conge.
DONNER, va. to give; from L. donare.
For n = n« cp. inimicus, ennemi. — Der.
doTinee. (partic. subst.), donneur.
DONT, adv. then pron. whence, from
whence, whose. In Clement Marot d'ond,
from L. de-undd, whose etymol. mean-
ing the Fr. of the 17th cent, had pre-
served, as Corneille uses it in Nic. v, 2 :
Le Mont Avenfin, dont // Vaurait vu
faire une horrible descente. For u = o see
annoncer. The second d here becomes /,
as in subinde, soiwent.
i Donzelle, sf. a damsel ; introd. in 16th
cent, from It. donzella. Donzelle is a
doublet of demoiselle, q. v.
fDorade, sf. a dorado, gold-fish; introd.
from Prov. daurada. Daurada signifies
rightly 'gilded' (doree), partic. of Prov.
verb daurar, from L. deaurare. Dorade
is a doublet of doree.
DORENAVANT, adv. henceforward. See
desormais.
DORER, va. to gild; from L. deaurare
(in Seneca). Deaurare, contrd. regularly
into d'aurare, becomes dorer. For au =
see alouette. — Der. dorem, dedorer.
DORLOTER, va. to coddle. Origin un-
known.
DORMIR, vn. to sleep ; from L. dormire.
— Der. dormeuT, dormeuse, endormir.
Dorsal, adj. dorsal; from L. dorsalis*,
from dorsum.
DORTOIR, sm. a bedroom, dormitory; from
L. dormitorium. Dormitorium, regu-
larly contrd. (see § 52) into dorm'torium,
becomes dor'torium (for loss of m see
Hist. Gram. p. 81), and then dorioir by
attraction of the i ; see chanoine.
DOS, sm. the back; from L. dossum, a
form found (for dorsum) in several in-
scriptions of the Empire. For rs = s see
chine. — Der. rfoisier, adosser.
Dose, sf. a dose ; from Gr. 86cns. — Der.
doser.
DOSSIER, sm. back (of seats, etc.), a bundle
of papers labelled on the back; from dos,
q.v.
Dot, sf. a dowry; from L. dot em. — Der.
c?o/er (which is a doublet of doner, q. v.),
dotz\.
Dotation, sf. a dotation; from L. dota-
tionem.
DOUAIRE, sm. a dowry; from L. dota-
rium. For loss of medial t see abbaye;
for o = ou see affouage. — Der, douairVext.
fDouane, sf. custom-house; introd. to-
wards the 15th cent, from It. doana, old
form of dogana. Douane is a doublet of
divan, q. v. — Der. douanier.
DOUBLE, adj. double; from L. duplus.
For u = OM see § 90 ; for p = 6 see
abeille. — Der. doublet, dedoubler, redoubler,
doublet, doublure.
tDoublon, sm. a doubloon; introd. from
Sp. doublon.
DOUCET, adj. mild. See doux.
DOUCEUR, sf. sweetness ; from L. dul-
corem. For vlI — ou see agneau ; for
6 = eu see § 79. — Der. doucereux, doucer-
eusement.
t Douche, sf. a douche, bath; introd.
in 1 6th cent, from It. doccia. — Der.
doucher,
DOUELLE, sf. an archivolt. See douve.
DOUER, va. to endow ; from L. dotare.
For loss of t see abbaye; for o = o« see
affouage. Doner is a doublet of doter.
DOUILLE, sf. a socket ; from L. ductile *
used in medieval Lat. for a culvert ; thus we
have ' ductilis aquae ' in a Chartulary of
1016. For ductile = douille see andouille.
— Douille is a doublet of ductile, q. v.
DOUILLET, adj. soft, downy, effeminate;
dim. of O. Fr. donille (soft, tender), which
is from L. ductilis. For ductilis = douille,
see andouille. — Der. douilletiement.
DOULEUR, sf. pain ; from L. dolorem.
For accented o = eu see § 79 ; for atonic
o = OM see affouage.
DOULOUREUX, adj. painful, sorrowful,
lao
DOULOIR—^DU.
grievous; from L. dolor6su8. For
-osu8 = -«/* see § 229; for atonic o — ou
see affouafre.
DOULOIR (SE), vpr. to mourn, grieve ; from
L. ddlere. For 6 = ow see q^owa"-* ; for
S = ot see § 61. — Der. deiiil (O. Fr.
deul, verbal subst. of -doloir). For o = eu
see § 79.
DOUTER, vn. to doubt. Cat. duhtar, from
L. dubitare. For loss of i in dubitare
see § 52 ; for Vi = ou see § 90; for bt = ^
see § 168. — Der.doute (verbal subst.), dout-
eux, redoufer.
DOUVE, sf. stave (of casks). Origin un-
known. — Der. ffowelle (for dou-v-elle). For
loss of V see aieul.
DOUX, adj. sweet, soft. O. Fr. dous, origin-
ally dols, from L. dulcis. For ul = ow see
agneau ; for G = x see agencer. — Der.
zdoiich, doticet, douce&tre.
DOUZE, adj. twelve ; from L. duodecim,
by regular contr. of du6d§cini into
duod'cim, see § 51. For uo = see
deux; for d'c = c see § 168; for o = ou
see affouage; for c = z see amitie. — Der.
douzihmt, rfoMzaine.
DOYEN, sm. a dean ; from L. decanus.
For loss of medial c see affouage ; for
e = oi see § 61 ; for -anus = -en see
§ 194. — Der. doyenn6 (which is a doublet
of decanat, q. v.).
Drachme, s/". a drachma ; from L. drach-
ma.
f Dr ag§e, 5/ a sugarplum ; introd. through
Prov. dragea, from It. treggea. — Der,
drageoxr.
DRAGEON, sm. (Bot.) a sucker ; a word of
Germ, origin, Goth, draibjain.
DRAGON, sm. a dragon; from L. dra-
conein. For Q=g see adjuger. — Der.
dragon (a dragoon), dragonne, dragonna.de.
+ Drague, sf. a drag, dredge ; introd. from
Eng. drag. — Der. dragutr, dragueur.
t Drainer, va. to drain; introd. from
Eng. drain. — Der. drainzgt.
Dramatique, adj. dramatic; from L. dra-
maticus.
Dramaturge, sm. a dramatist, playwright ;
from Gr. dpafxarovpyos.
Drame, sm. the drama ; from L. drama.
DRAP, sm. cloth ; from L. drappum *, in
Charlemagne's Capitularies. Origin un-
known. — Der. draper, drapier, drapene.
DRAPEAU, sm. an ensign ; originally stuff,
a rag ; dim. of drap, q. v.
Drastique, adj. drastic ; from Gr. dpaan-
KOi,
DRfeCHE, sf. malt. O. Fr. dresche, crushed
barley, which is Low L. drascus, coming
from O. H. G. drascan (to thresh corn in a
barn). For a. = e see § 54 ; for loss of
s see Hist. Gram. p. 81. s
DRESSER, va. to erect, set up, arrange. It.
drizzare, dirizzaire, from L, drictiare*, a
verb derived from drictus, a form explained
under droit, q. v. For -ctiare (cciare) =
-sser see agencer; for i = e see meUre. —
Der. dressoxx, xedresser.
DRILLE, s/. (i) rag (for paper-making), (2)
drill, (3) a soldier, comrade; of Germ,
origin, O. H. G. drigil, a servant, lad.
f Drogman, sm. a dragoman; in Ville-
hardouin drugkemant, It. drogomanno, a
word of Eastern origin, introd. from Con-
stantinople by the Cru«aders, who had bor-
rowed it from the medieval Gr. Spayovfiavos,
an interpreter.
DROGUE, sf. a drug. Origin unknown. —
Der. drogmste, droguer.
DROGUE, sf. game of drogue (played by
soldiers and sailors). Origin unknown.
DROIT, sm. right; from L. directum,
which came to have the sense of justice or
right. (Thus we find * directum facere ' for
'to do justice' in the Formulae of Marculfus.)
Directus becomes dirictus in medieval
Lat. documents, as in ' et ultro hoc debet
habere dirictum,' for e = i see § 59 ;
dirictum. soon became contrd. to dric-
tum, to be seen in Charlemagne's Capitu-
laries, ' Et plus per drictum et legem
fecissent' : lastly drictum becomes droit,
by regular change of ict into oil, see attrait;
cp. St rictus, etroit. — Der. droilnre.
DROIT, crrf/. straight, right; from L. direc-
tus. For changes see above. Droit is a
doublet of direct, q. v. — Der, zdroit.
+ Dr61e, adj. droll; sm. a knave, sharp
rogue. Formerly drolle. Introd. from Eng.
droll. — Der. drolerie, drolesse, cfro/atique.
Dromadaire, sm. a dromedary ; from L.
dromadarius, which from L, dromadem,
DRU, adj. fledged, lively, vigorous, thickset ;
of Celtic origin, Kymr, drud, vigorous.
Druide, sm. a druid; from L. druida, a
Celtic priest. — Der. druidesse, druid-
isme.
Drupe, sm. (Bot.) drupe; from L. drupa
(properly the olive).
Dryade, sf. a dryad ; from L, dryad em.
DU, art. m. of the* O. Fr. deu, originally
del, which is a contr. of de le. Del be-
comes deu by softening / into u ; see
agneau.
DU — JSbRUITER.
121
DU, sm. due, duty ; formerly deii, p.p. of
devoir used substantively. Under boire
we have shown that the p.p. of debere
should have been debutus. Fordebutus =
deu^dii see boire. — Der, diim&xit (from
fem. due and suffix merit).
Dubitatif, adj. dubitative, expressive of
doubt; from L. dubitativus.
DUG, stn. a duke ; from L. ducem. Its
doublet is doge, q. v.
+ Ducat, 5m. a ducat; iromlt. ducato. Its
doublet is duche. — Der. ducaton.
DUCHE, sm. a duchy. See due.
DUG HESSE, s/. a duchess. See disc.
Ductile, adj. ductile; from L. ductilis.
Its doublet is douille, q, v. — Der. ductilite.
fDudgne, sf. a duenna; from Sp. duena.
Its doublet is dame, q. v.
Duel, sm. a duel ; from L. duellum. — Der.
duel\\ste.
Dulcifier, va. to dulcify, sweeten ; from L.
dulcificare * (which from dulcem),
DUNE, sf. a down ; of Celtic origin, Irish diln,
a hill.
t Duo, sm. a duet ; from It. duo. Its doublet
is deux, q. v.
DUPE, sf. a dupe. Origin unknown. — Der.
dnper, diiperie, dupeur.
tDuplicata, swz. a duplicate, a Lat. word ;
neut. pi. of duplicatus, p.p. of dupli-
care.
Duplicity, s/". duplicity; from L. duplici-
tatem.
DUR, adj. hard ; from L, d\irus. — Der. dur-
et6 (L. duritatem), durillon, durcir.
DURER, vn. to endure, last ; from L. durare.
— Der. dur^e (partic. subst.), rfwrant, dur-
able.
DUVET, sm. down, wool, nap ; from L. du-
metum, through a form dubetum*,
whence diwet; for b=i/ see § 113.
Dynastie, sf. a dynasty ; from Gr. Svva-
(TTfia.
Dyspepsie, sf dyspepsia; from Gr. Sva-
■niipia.
Dyssenterie, sf. dysentery ; from Gr, 8u<r-
ivr^pia.
Dysurie, sf. dysuria ; from Gr. hvaovpia.
EAU, sf water; in T5th cent, eawe, earlier
eave, originally eve, from L. aqua. Aqua
becomes aqva by the consonification of
u (see Janvier), thence ava by reduction
of qv into v (see Janvier and suivre).
Ava becomes eve by regular softening
of a into e (see § 54); cp, faba, sapa,
feve, seve. Eve soon changed e to the
diphthong ea {eave); cp. bel, beal, whence
beau. Eave next vocalises v into w (see
aurone), whence the form eaue which was
reduced to eau from the 16th cent.
EBAHIR, vn. to be amazed; an onomatopoetic
word formed from the interj. bah I — Der.
eiaAissement.
EBARBER, va. to pare, scrape. See barbe. —
Der, e6ar6age,
EBATTRE, vn. to sport, frolic. See battre.
— Der. ebat (verbal subst,),
EBAUBI, adj. wonderstruck. Ebaubi is p.p,
of O, Fr, ebaubir. Ebaubir means ' to make
baube,' just as faroucher means ' to make
farouche'; O.Yr. baube, — begue, stammering,
is from L. balbus by softening 1 into u, see
agneau.
EBAUGHER, va. to sketch out. Origin un-
known. — Der. ebauche (verbal subst.),
ebauchoir.
EBAUDIR, vpr. to frisk, frolic ; lit. to make
gay. For etymology of baud see baudet.
ifib^ne, §/". ebony ; from L. ebenus. — Der.
ebemer, ebeniste, eftmisterie.
EBLOUIR, va. to dazzle. Origin unknown. —
Der. e'Wowissement,
EBORGNER, va. to make blind of one eye.
See borgne.
EBOULER, vn. to fall (like a ball). See
boule. — Per, eboulement.
EBOURIFFE, panic, disordered (of the hair).
Origin unknown.
EBRANLER, va. to shake. See branler.-^
Der. ebranlement.
EBRECHER, va. to make a breach in,
impair. — See breche.
EBROUER (S'), vpr. to snort, sneeze. Origin
unknown.
tifibrouer, va. to wash (before dyeing
a stuff) ; from Germ, bruhen.
EBRUITER, va. to make known, noise
about. See bruit.
122
SB ULLITION — SCHA RPE.
Ebullition, s/. ebullition; from L. ebul-
litionem.
feCACHER, va. to crush ; formerly escacker,
compd. of intensive prefix ez and O. Fr,
verb cacher, q, v.
l^CAILLE, sf. scale, shell. O. Fr. escaille,
originally escale, a word of Germ, origin,
Goth, scalja. Germ, schale. For initial sc —
ec, see Hist. Gram. p. 78. Scaille isa doublet
of tcale, q. v. — Der. icailltx, icaillhxe.
6CALE, sf. hull (of beans, etc.). shell;
formerly escale. For its etymology see its
doublet ecaille. — Der. ecaler.
ECARLATE, adj. scarlet ; formerly escarla(e,
word of Eastern origin, Pers. scarlat. For
sc = esc = tc, see Hist. Gram. p. 78.
ECARQUILLER, va. to open (one's eyes,
etc.). Origin unknown.
ECART, sm. a step aside, flight, digression,
fault. See ecarter.
ECARTELER, vn. to quarter ; formerly
escarteler, compd. of ex and cartel : ecar-
ieler is to make into cartel. Cartel is from
L, quartellus*, dim. of quartus. For
qu = c see car. — Der. ecartelemQw^..
^CARTER, va. to divert, turn aside; for-
merly escarter, compd. of ex and carte,
^carter, originally a term of card-playing,
means properly to put the cards aside,
reject them ; thence by extension to reject
generally. — Der. ecart (verbal subst.), ecarte,
ecartement.
Ecchymose, sf. ecchymosis ; from Gr.
Ecclesiastique, adj. and sm. ecclesiastical,
an ecclesiastic; from L. ecclesiasticus.
ECERVELE, adj. harebrained. See cervelle.
£CHAFAUD, sm. a scaffold. O. Fr. escha-
faud, eschaafaut ; originally escadafaut,
meaning first a platform whence to see a
tourney, etc. Escadafaut, from Low Lat.
scadafaltum, is compd. of ex and
cadafaltum. Cadafaltum is in Prov.
cadafalc, in It. catafalco. This form
catafalco is compd. of cata and falco :
cata is derived from a Romance verb catar
(to see), origin unknown ; falco is of
Germ, origin, answering to O. H. G. palcho.
Catafalco is properly a scaffolding whence
one sees a show. As to changes from exca-
dafaltum * to eschadafaut, eschaafaut, es-
chafaut ; for c = cA see § 126 ; for loss of d
see accabler; for loss of s see Hist. Gram.
p. 81 ; for l = tt see agneau. Schafaud is
a doublet of catafalque, q. v. — Der. echa-
-^ faudzge. echafaudtx.
ECHALAS, sm. a. lath, stake ; formerly es-
chalas, escalas ; originally escaras, from L.
ex-oaratium *. Caratium, a pale or
stake in the Lex Langobardcrum (' Si
quis palum, quod est caratium, de vite
tulerit'), is from Gr. X'^P°i-
Ex-caratixim becomes escaras, then
eschalas. For o — cA see § 126; for r = /
see § 154 ; for x^s see ajouter.
ECHALOTE, ./. a shalot ; formerly escha-
lote ; corruption of eschalone, escalone, the
O. Fr. form. Escalone is from L. asca-
lonia (Pliny). For a = « see § 54; for
c = cA see § 126; for loss of s see Hist.
Gram. p. 81.
ECHANCRER, va. to hollow out, slope, cut
in form of a chancre. Chancre is from L.
cancriim ; properly a crab, then a canker,
crab-shaped. For <i = ch see § 126. — Der.
echancrnxe.
ECHANGER, va. to exchange, barter. See
changer. — Der. echange (verbal subst.),
echange^hle, echanglsie.
ECHANSON, sm. a cupbearer. O. Fr. es-
fhancon, from L. scantionem* (used in
the Germanic laws). Scantio is from
O. H. G. scenfo. For initial 8G = esc = ec
see Hist. Gram. p. 78 ; for c = ch see § 1 26 ;
for ti = f! = s see agencer.
ECHANTILLON, sm. a sample, pattern;
dim. of O. Fr. echantil. Schantil, originally
eschantil, escantil, is compd. of ex and
O. Fr. cant (a corner, piece), which comes
from L. cantlius. For G = ch see § 126.
— Der. echantillonnex.
ECHAPPER, va. to escape, avoid ; formerly
eschaper, escaper; properly to get out of
the cape (of the cloak), thence by
extension, to flee, escape. A parallel
metaphor exists in Gr. hKlv^aOai ; for
this analogy of metaphors see § 15.
The It. confirms this derivation by having
two verbs scappare (to escape), formed
from ex and cappa (a robe) ; and incappare
(to fall into), formed from in and cappa. —
Der. echappee (verbal subst., whose doublet
is escapade, q. v.), echappexnent, echappzlo'ut.
ECHARDE, sf. a prickle (lit. of a thistle),
splinter. O. Fr. escharde, compd. of ex
and charde, which from L. carduus. For
e = cA see § 126.
ECHARPE, sf. a scarp, sling (for a broken
arm, etc.); in middle ages a great purse
hung round a pilgrim's neck. Joinville
speaks of one who put in son escharpe
grant foison d'or et d'argent. Then it
designated the belt or band from which the
purse hung. For this change of meaning
ScHARPER — Colore.
123
see § 13. Scharpe, O. Fr. esckarpe, escherpe,
is a word of Germ, origin, O.H.G. scherbe.
This Germ, word gave to Low Lat. a type
Scarpa *, whence the dim. scarpicella *.
Scarpicella becomes escarcelle. For the
regular loss of i see § 52, whence scarp'' -
cella; for &o=esc see Hist. Gram. p. 78;
for pc = c see caisse. Echarpe is a doublet
o( escarpe. q. v.
ECHARPER, va. to slash, cut to bits ; second-
ary form, with change of conjugation, of
O. Fr. echarpir, originally escharpir, which
from L. excarpere, compd. of ex and
carpere. For c = cA see § 126; fore = i
, see § 59.
ECHASSE, sf. a stilt, tressel. O. Fr. eschace,
word of Germ, origin, O. Flem. schoetse.
For sch = esch = ech see Hist. Gram. p. 78.
— Der. echassier.
ECHAUDER, va. to scald ; formerly chauder,
from L. excaldare (in Apicius), For
G = ch see § 126, for aX = au see agneau.
— Der. echaude, echaudoir.
ECHAUFFER, va. to warm, heat. See
chauffer. — Der. echai-iffement, rechauffer.
ECHAUFFOUREE, sf. an affray; partic.
subst. of O. Fr. echauffbnrer, compd. of ex
and O. Fr. chajiffourer. Origin unknown.
ECHAULER, va. to steep in lime-water. See
chauler.
ECHE, sf. a bait. O. Fr. escke, from L. esca.
For csL = che see §§126 and 54, For loss
of s see Hist. Gram. p. 81.
ECHEANCE, sf. expiration, falling due (of
bills, &c.). See echoir.
^CHECS, sm. pi. (i) chess. (2) in the sing.
a check, defeat. For such metaphorical
senses see § 12. O. Fr. eschac: both the
game and name are oriental ; Pers. schah, a
king, the game taking its name from the
principal piece. From the Pers. phrase
sckach-mai = the king is dead, comes the
expression echec et mat (checkmate). Echec
is a doublet of schah. — Der. echiqnitr.
ECHELLE, sf a ladder. O. Fr. eschele, from
L. scala. For o = ch see § 126, for sc =
esc = ec see Hist. Gram. p. 78, for a = e see
§ 54. Echelle is a doublet of escale. —
Der. echelon, echelonner.
ECHEVEAU, sm. a skein. O. Fr. echevel.
For el = eau see agneau. Echevel is verbal
subst. of echeveler. See echevele.
ECHEVELE, partic. dishevelled ; from O. Fr.
echeveler. See cheveu.
ECHEVIN, sm. an alderman, judge ; formerly
eschevin. It. scabino, from L. scabinus * ;
- a Carolingian word of Germ, origin, from
0*H. G. skepeno. For oa, = che see §§126
and 54; for 80 = esc = ec see Hist. Gram. p.
78: for b = v see avant and § 113. — Der.
echevinnge, echevinzl.
ECHINE, sf. a spine, chine ; formerly eschine,
Prov. esquina ; of Germ, origin, O. H. G.
sJiina. Its doublet is esquine.
ECHIQUIER, sm. a chess-board, exchequer.
See echecs.
^cho, sm. an echo; from L. echo.
ECHOIR, vn. to fall to, become due ; formerly
eschoir, from L. excadere *. For ca-
dere = choir see choir. — Der. ech6^nt (pres.
partic), whence sf. echeauce.
ECHOPPE, sf a graver. Origin unknown.
ECHOPPE, sf a carved stall (in market);
formerly eschoppe, from Germ, schoppen.
For sc = esc = ec see Hist. Gram. p. 78.
ECHOUER, vn. to run aground, to fail, mis-
carry. Origin unknown.
ECLABOUSSER, va. to splash. Origin un-
known.
ECLAIR, sm. lightning; verbal subst. of
eclairer.
ECLAIRCIR, va. to clear up, brighten. See
clair. — Der. eclaircie (partic. subst.), eclair-
cissement.
ECLAIRER, va. to light, illuminate ; formerly
esclairer, from L. exclarare. For a, = ai
see aigle ; for x = s see ajouter; for loss of
s see Hist. Gram. p. 81. — Der. eclair,
eclainge, eclairem.
ECLANCHE, sf. a shoulder of mutton. Origin
unknown. *
ECLAT, sm. a fragment, an explosion, splen-
dour. See eclater.
ECLATER, vn. to fly into fragments, burst,
shine brilliantly; of Germ, origin, O.H.G.
skleizan, afterwards sMeitan, whence O. Fr.
esclater, then eclater. — Der. eclat, eclaUnt.
ificlectique, adj. eclectic ; from Gr. €k\€k-
TiKos. — Der. eclectisme.
Eclipse, s/. an eclipse; from L. eclipsis.
— Der. eclipser.
ificliptique, sf the ecliptic ; from L. eclip-
ticus.
ECLISSE, sf. split wood ; compd. of clisse,
a piece of split wood ; of Germ, origin,
O. H. G. kliozan, to cleave.
ECLOPPE, adj. lame. See clopin-clopant.
ECLORE, vn. to hatch, open, dawn ; formerly
esclore, from L. ex-claudere *. The
compd. ex-claudere signified to hatch,
come out. Columella often uses ' ex-
cludere ova ' for ' to hatch eggs.' For
olaudere = clore see clore ; for x = s see
ajouter.-— Dex. eclos, ec/osion.
124
SCLUSE — SCRU,
ECLUSE, §^. a mill-dam ; formerly escluse,^ Sp.
esclusa, from L. ezclusa. Exclusa aqua,
properly water dammed up, is used thus in
Fortunatiis and several Merov, documents.
Exolusa becomes sclusa in the 8th cent,
in the Lex Salica : * Si quis sclusam de
molendino alieno rumperit.' For x = s see
ajouter; for loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 8l.
— Der. edusier, eclusdt.
ECOLE, s/l a school; formerly escole, from
L. schola. For ch = c see § 135; for sc
= esc = cc see Hist. Gram. p. 78. — Der.
e'co/ier (whose doublet is scolaire).
ilSconome, smf. an economist; from L.
oeconomus, so used in the Theodosian
Code. — Der. econom\e, econotnlser, econom-
ists.
Ilconomique, adj. economical; from L.
oeconomicus, so used in Quintilian.
ECORCE, ^. bark; formerly escorce. It.
scorzxi, in 7th cent, scorzia, in the
Vocabulary of St. Gall, from L. excor-
ticea*, deriv. of corticem. For ex = e
see ecluse; for corticea = cort'cea see
§ 51 ; for cort'cea = cortcia see agencer.
— Der. ecorcei.
tCORCHER, va. to flay, skin; formerly
escorcher, from L. excorticare, to take
away the bark (corticem) ; then in the
Salic law to flay. Excorticare is scorti-
care in the Capitularies of Charlemagne :
' antea flagellatus et scorticatus.'
Excorticdre, contrd. regularly (see
§«S2) into excort'care, excor'care, be-
comes escorcher. For x = s see ajouter;
for ca, = che see §§126 and 54. Scorcher
is a doublet of ecorcer. — Der. e'corcAeur,
ecorchate.
ECORNER, va. to break the horn, curtail.
See corne. — Der. ecorniBer.
ECORNIFLER, va. to sponge on (any one).
See ecorner. — Der. ecornijleur.
ECOSSER, va. to husk, shell. See cosse.
ECOT, sm. branch of a tree. O. Fr. escot ; of
Germ, origin, O. Norse skot.
ECOT, sm. share, 'scot'; formerly e^cot; of
Germ, origin, Engl, scot, contribution.
ECOULER (S'), vpr. to run off", drain ; formerly
escouler, from L. excolare (occurring in
a Latin version of the Bible). For x = s see
ajouter ; for loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 8 1 ;
for o = oti see affouage. — Der. ecoulement.
ICOURTER, vn. to curtail, shorten. See court.
ECOUTE, s/. a listening-place. See ecouter.
ECOUTE, sf. sheet (of a sail); formerly escow^e,
of Germ, origin, Dan. skicede, Swed. skot.
JECOUTER, va. to listen to, hearken, O. Fr.
escolter, from L. auscultfire, which in lat"
Lat. is often written asoultare. For a = *
see § 54; for esc = ec see Hist. Gram.
p. 78; for ul=OM see Hist. Gram, p. 54.
Its doublet is ausculter, q. v.
ECOUTILLE, s/^. a hatchway. Origin unknown,
ECOUVETTE, sf. a broom, brush ; dim. of
4couve *, O. Fr. escouve, from L. scopa.
For sc = esc = ec see Hist Gram. p. 78 ; for
o = OM see affouage ; for p = 6 = v see § ill.
Another dim. of ecouvi is ecouvillon.
ECOUVILLON, sm. a gunner's sponge. See
ecouvefte. *
EC RAN, sm. a screen ; formerly escran.
Origin unknown.
ECRASER, va. to crush; formerly escraser,
compd. of a radical eraser, of Germ, origin,
Swed. krasa. — Der. ecrasement.
ECREVISSE, sf. a crayfish; in 13th cent.
crevice, from O. H. G. krebiz.
ECRIER(S'), vpr. to exclaim, cry out. Seecrier.
ECRIN, sm. a casket, shrine ; formerly escrin,
from L. scrinium. For 80 = esc = ec see
Hist. Gram. p. 78.
ECRIRE, va. to write ; formerly escrire, from
L. scribere. For regular loss of penult. 6
see § 51 ; for br = r see boire ; for sc = esc
= ec see Hist. Gram. p. 78, — Der. ecnveur,
g'cnvassier.
ECRIT, sm. a writing ; formerly escrit, from
L. scriptum. For sc = ec see Hist. Gram.
p. 78; for pt = / see § 168. — Der. ecnVeau.
ECRITOIRE, sf. an inkstand ; from L. scrip-
torixim. For script- =ecrit- see ecrit; for
O = oi, see chanoine.
ECRITURE, sf. writing ; from L. scriptiira.
For script- = ecrit- see ecrit.
ECRIVAIN, sm. a writer, author; from L.
scribanus *, deriv. of scriba. For scri-
= ecri- see ecrit ; for b = v see § 113; for
-anus = -am see § 192.
ECROU, sm. a screw-nut; formerly escrou,
from L. scrobem. For sc = esc = 6c see
Hist. Gram. p. 78 ; for o = ou see affouage ;
for loss of b see aboyer and §113.
ECROU, sm. a gaol register. See ecro7/er.
ECROUELLES, sf. pi. scrofula, the king's
evil; formerly escronelles, from L. scro-
fella*, a secondary form of scrofula. For
loss of f see antienne ; for o = ou see affou-
age ', for sc = esc = ec see Hist. Gram. p. 78.
ECROUER, va. to enter in the gaol register.
Origin unknown. — Der. eVrow (verbal subst.).
ECROUIR, va. to harden. Origin unknown.
ECROULER, vn. to fall to pieces. See
crouler. — Der. ecroulemexit.
ECRU, adj. unbleached; compd. of cru, q. v.
^C U — EFFRA C TION.
125
Cuir ecru is what the Romans called cru-
diim scorium, untanned leather.
ECU, sm. a shield, a crowu-piece, money ; for-
merly escw, originally escw/, from L. scutum.
For so = esc = ec see Hist. Gram. p. 78 ; for
loss of t see aigu. The sense of crown
piece comes from the three fleur-de-lys
stamped on the coin as on a shield. — Der.
e'cwsson (properly a little ecu, from L.
seutionem ; for ti = ss see agencer).
ECUEIL, sm. a rock ; formerly escueil, from
L. scopulus. For regular contr. into
scop'lus see § 51; for pi = il see Hist.
Gram. p. 8i ; for o — ue see accueillir ; for
sc = ec see Hist. Gram. p. 78,'
ECUELLE, sf. a porringer, O. Fr. escuelle,
Prov. escudela, from L. scutella. For loss
of t see abbaye ; for sc = esc = ec see Hist.
Gram. p. 78.
ECULER, va. to tread down the heels (of
boots). See cul.
Legume, sm. foam; ioxxnexly escume ; of Germ,
origin, Q, H. G. scum. — Der. ecumtr, ecum-
eux, ecjwtGUT, ecumoixe.
ECURER, va. to scour (pots and pans). See
curer. — Der, recurer.
ECUREUIL, sm. a squirrel ; formerly escu-
reuil, from L. sciuriolus, dim. of sciurus.
For -iolus = -ewz7 see § 253; forsc = esc =
ec see Hist. Gram. p. 78.
ECURIE, sf. a stable ; formerly escurie, from
Merov. L. scTiria (' Si quis scuriam cum
animalibus incenderit,' Sahc Law). For sc
~esc=^ec see Hist. Gram. p. 78. Scuria is
of Germ, origin, O. H. G. skura.
ECUSSON, sm. a knob, shield, escutcheon.
See ecu. — Der. ecusso?ier (to bud).
ECUYER, sm. a squire; formerly escuyer,
Prov. escudier. It. scudiere, from L. scuta-
rius * (who carries the scutum of a
knight). For loss of medial t see abbaye ;
for -arius = -ier see §198; for sc = esc = ec
see Hist. Gram. p. 178. — Der. ecuyhie.
!!fiden, sm. Eden (in St. Jerome).
EDENTER, va. to break the teeth of. See
dent.
^dificateur, sm. a builder; from L. aedi-
ficatorem.
Edification, sf. building, edification ; from
^ L. aedificationem.
Edifice, sm. an edifice; from L. aedificium.
:fidifier, va. to build, edify; from L. aedi-
ficare.
ifidile, sm. an aedile ; from L. aedilis.
Edilit6, sf. aedileship ; from L. aedilitatem.
Edit, sm. an edict; from L. edictum. For
Ct = ^ see § 168.
Editer, va. to edit; from L. edit are, fre-
quent, of edere, to publish.
Editeur, sm. an editor; from L. editor em,
deriv. of edere, to publish.
Edition, sf. an edition; from L. editio-
nem.
fEdredon, sm. eider-down; formerly
ederdon, from Germ, eiderdune.
jfiducation, sf. education; from L. educa-
tionem,
Edulcorer, va. (Chem.), to sweeten ; from
L. e and dulcorem.
EFFACER, va. to efface ; meaning originally
to erase, wipe out, a face. See face. — Der,
Capable, in^a^able, effacexntnt.
EFFARER, va. to scare, make to look wild ;
from L. eflPerare. For e = a see amender.
EFFAROUCHER, va. to scare away. See
farouche.
EflPectif, adj. effective; from L. effec-
tivus.
EfFectuer, va. to effect, execute ; from L.
effectuare*, dim. verb from effectus.
Effeminer, va. to effeminate; from L,
effeminare.
E£Eervescent, adj. effervescent; from L.
effervescentem.
EFFET, sm. effect ; from L. efifectum. For
ct = / see § 168.
Efficace, adj. efficient; from L, effica-
cem.
Efficacit^, sf. efficacy; from L, efficaci-
tatem.
Efi&cient, adj. efficient; from L. effici-
entem.
Effigie, sf. an effigy; from L. effigiem.
EFFILE, sm. a fringe. EFFILER, va. to
ravel out, Seefil.
EFFILOCHER, va. to unravel. Seefiloche.
EFFLANQUER, va. to render lean. See
flanc.
EFFLEURER, va. to graze, rub a surface.
See fleur.
Ef9.orescent, adj. efflorescent; from L.
efflorescentem.
Eflorescence, sf. efflorescence; from L.
efflorescentia,deriv.of efflorescentem.
Effluve, sm. effluvium; from L. efflu-
vium.
EFFONDRER, vn. to fall in. ?>&e fond
Der. effondrement.
EFFORCER (S'), vpr. to make an effort. See
forcer. — Der. effort (verbal subst,).
Effracteur, va. a breaker open; from L,
effractor em.
Effraction, sf. a breaking open ; from L.
effractionem*.
126
EFFRA YER — SLIMER.
EFFRAYER, va. to frighten, affray; for-
merly eff'royer,es/royer,'Prov. esfreidar; from
L. exfrigidare*, compd. of frigidus, so
properly to freeze with fright. Exfrigi
ddre, contrd. regularly (see § 52) into
exfrig'dare, reduces gd to d (see amande),
whence exfridare, whence es/royer. For
X = s see ajouter ; for i = oi see boire ; for
loss of d see accabler. Next it loses s and
X = s becomes effroyer, see Hist. Gram. p. 81 ;
then effrayer by changing oi into ai, see
§ 61 Der. (from O. Fr. effroyer) effroi
(verbal subst.), ^^royable.
EFFRENE, adj. unbridled; from L. efifre-
natus. For -atus = -e see § 201.
EFFROI, va. fright. See effrayer.
EFFRONTE, adj. bold-faced. See front.—
Der. effronttnt.
EFFROYABLE, adj. frightful. See effrayer.
Effusion, sf. effusion; from L. effu-
sionem.
EGAL, adj. equal ; from L. aequalis. For
ae = « see § 104; for qu=^ see aigle. —
Der. egaler, egalistr, egalit^.
EGARD, sm. regard. See garder.
EGARER, va. to mislead. See garer. —
Der. egarement, egare.
EGAYER, va. to enliven. See gai.
!]£gide, sf. an aegis, protection; from L, aegi-
dem.
6GLANTIER, sm. eglantine, dog-rose ; for-
merly aiglentier, properly a plant covered
with aiglents, thorns. Aiglent is from L.
aculentus*, deriv. of actQeus*. Acu-
lentus, contrd. regularly (see § 52)
into aclentus, becomes aiglent. For cl
=ge, and for & = ai, see aigle. — Aiglant
has produced two Fr. derivations : aiglaniiei
(now eglantier), aiglantine (now eglan-
^ tine).
EGLANTINE sf. eglantine, columbine. See
eglantier.
EGLISE, sf. a church; from L. ecclesia.
For e = 2 see § 59 ; for cl =gl see aigle.
Eglogue, sf. an eclogue; from L. ecloga.
ifigoisme, sm. egotism, selfishness ; der.
from L. ego. — Der. egdiitt.
EGORGER, va. to cut the throat, slay. See
gorge. — Der. egorgemctvt, egorgeur.
EGOSILLER, va. to make the throat sore,
make hoarse. See gosier.
EGOUT, sm. a fall (of water), sewer. See
Sgoutter. — Der. egoutier.
EGOUTTER, va. to drain. See goutte.—
Der. egout (verbal subst.).
EGRATIGNER, va. to scratch (the skin).
See gratter. — Der. egratignutc.
EGRENER, va. to shell (seeds), pick grapes
(from the bunch) ; formerly egrainer. See
grain.
EGRILLARD, adj. brisk. Origin unknowo.
t Ifigriser, va. to clean (diamonds);
compd. of a radical grise*, which is Germ.
gries. Egrisee is diamond-powder, used to
polish diamonds.
EHONTE, adj. shameless. See honte.
!£|jacillation, sf. ejaculation ; from L.
ejaculationem*.
ifilaboration, sf. elaboration ; from L.
elaborationem.
Ifilaborer, va. to elaborate; from L. ela-
borare.
ELAGUER, va. to prune, curtail ; of Germ.
origin, Dutch lalten. — Der. elagngt.
ELAN, sm. a burst, spring. See 6lancer.
t !filan, sm. an elan (a kind of elk) ; from
Germ, elenn.
ELANCER. va to dart, shoot, push on. See
lancer. — Der. elan (verbal subst), elance,
elancement.
ELARGIR, va. to widen. See Ibrge. — Der.
e'/ar^-issement.
ifilastique, arf/. elastic; from Gr.kKaaTiKos.
— Der. elasticite.
t Eldorado, sm. Eldorado; from Sp.
eldorado.
^lecteur, sm. an elector; from L. elec-
tor em. — Der. e/ec/oral, electorzX.
ifilectif, adj. elective; from L. electivus*,
der. from electus. See elire.
ifilection, sf an election; from L. elec-
tionem.
ifilectrique, adj. electrical; from L. elec-
trum. — Der. electricite. electriser.
Ifilectuaire, sm. an electuary; from L.
electuarium.
!fil6gance, s/. elegance; fromL. elegantia.
!fil6gant, ac?/. elegant ; from L. elegantem.
]Sl6giaque, adj. elegiac; from L. eligi-
acus.
I6l6gie, sf. an elegy ; from L. elegia.
l6l6nient, sm. an element; from L. ele-
mentum. — Der. eUmenta'ne.
I6l6phant, sm. an elephant; fromL. ele-
phantem. Its doublet is O. Fr. olifant.
ELfeVE, sm. a pupil. See lever.
ELEVER, va. to raise, bring up, educate. See
lever. — Der. eleve (verbal subst.), elevQ,
eUvztion, elevtnx.
ifilider, va. to elide, cut off; from L. eli-
dere.
ifiligible, adj. eligible; from L. eligibilis.
Der. eligibility.
ELIMER, va. to file out. See limer.
^LI MINER — EMDRA SER .
127
ifiliminer, va. to eliminate; from L, elim-
inate. — Der. e'/fm/wation.
ELIRE, va. to elect, choose ; from L. elig-
. ere. The e disappears (§ 51) whence
eli'gre ; then gr becomes r (see § i68\
whence elire. Eligere, signifying to choose,
try, the O. Fr. elire, meant the same ; whence
the O. Fr. p.p. elite, now used as a subst.,
signifying that which has been chosen,
choice. Slite represents L. electa. For e
= i see § 59; for ct = t see § 168.
]Slision, */■. elision; from L. elisionem,
ELITE, sf. the elite, chosen ones. See elire.
fifilixir, sm. an elixir; of Eastern origin,
together with many other chemical terms.
It represents Ar. al-ahsir, quintessence,
ELLE, pers. pr. she ; from L. ilia. For i = e
see mettre.
E116bore, sm. hellebore; from L. elle-
borum.
Ellipse, sf. an ellipsis, ellipse; from L. ellip-
sis (found in Priscian). — Der. ellipt'ique.
!filocution, sf. elocution ; from L. elocu-
tionem.
^filoge, sm. an eulogium, eulogy; from L.
elogium. — Der. elogieux.
ELOIGNER, va. to remove afar. See loin.
— Der. eloignement.
Eloquence, sf. eloquence; from L. elo-
quentia,
Eloquent, ac?/, eloquent; from L. eloquen-
tem.
iSlucider, va. to elucidate; from L, eluci-
dare.
Ifilucubration, sf. a lucubration ; from L,
elucubrationem.
ifiluder, va. to elude ; from L. eludere.
^Iys6e, sm. elysium; from L, elysium.
EMAIL, sm. enamel ; formerly esmail. It,
smalto; of Germ, origin, O, H.G. smalti,
that which has been fused, melted. For
sm = esm = em see Hist. Gram, p. 78, —
Der. emailler, emailleur.
Emancipation, sf. emancipation ; from L.
emancipationem.
iSmanciper, va. to emancipate ; from L,
emancipare.
Emaner, vn. to emanate; from L. ema-
nate. — Der, emamtion.
fiMARGER, va. to wtite in the margin. See
marge. — Der. emargement.
EMBALLER, va. to pack up. See balle.—
Der. embalhge, emballeuv.
fEmbarcaddre, sm. a wharf, place
of embarkation ; from Sp. emharcadero.
t Embarcation, sf. embarkation ; from
Sp. embarcacion.
t Embargo, sm. an embargo; from Sp.
embargo.
EMBARQUER, va. to embark, ship. See
barque, — Der. embarquement.
EMBARRASSER, va. to obstruct, embarrass;
DEBARRASSER, va. to disembarrass;
compds, of radical barras*, which in Sp. is
also barras, whence verb active barrasser*
(cp, barrer from harre). Barras* is from Fr.
barre, q.v. — Der, embarras (verbal subst,).
EMBAUCHER, va. to hite, seduce. See de-
baucher. — Der. embauch^ge, efnbaucheur.
EMBAUMER, va. to embalm. See baume.
— Der, embaumeur, embanmement.
EMBELLIR, va. to embellish. See beau.—
Der. emfc^Z/issement.
EMBLAVER, va. to sow with corn ; from L.
imbladare*, from bladum, q. v. Imbla-
dare is a common word in medieval docu-
ments, and has also given birth to It. imbia-
dare, which answers exactly to emblaver.
Imbladare drops its medial d, see
accabler ; it intercalates an euphonic v, see
corvee. For i = e see mettre. — Der. em-
blavme.
EMBLEE, adv. at the first onset ; an adverbial
phrase, compd. of de and emblee, partic.
subst. of embler, O. Fr. verb meaning to
steal. It comes from L. involare, written
irabolare in the Germanic Laws. For v = 6
see bachelier ; for contr. of imboldre into
imbl'lare see § 52, whence embler; for
i = e see mettre.
Embl6matique, adj. emblematic See
embleme.
Embldme, sm. an emblem ; from L, em-
blem a. — Der. emWe'matique.
EMBOIRE, va. to cover (with wax or oil).
See boire,
EMBOtTER, va. to fit in, joint. See boite.
EMBONPOINT, sm. stoutness, plumpness,
O. Fr, en bon point. See point.
EMBOSSER, va,(Naut,) to bring the broadside
to bear (on) ; compd, of en and bosse (the
name of certain parts of a ship's rigging).
— Der, embossage.
EMBOUCHER, va. to put to the mouth. See
bouche. — Der. embouchure, embouchoir.
EMBOURBER, va. to thtust into mite. See
bourbe.
EMBRANCHEMENT, sm. branching off;
deriv. of embrancher, compd. of en and
branche, q. v.
EMBRASER, va. to set on fire. — Der. em-
brasement, embrasure ; originally a term of
fortification, a narrow window in a parapet,
through which to lay a cannon, or fire a
138
EMBRA SSER — EMPiCHER .
gun : properly a window whence one sets
fire to (embraser) a gun.
EMBRASSER, va. to embrace. O. Fr. evi-
bracer, properly to take in one's arms
(brace). For explanation and etymology of
O. Fr. brace see bras. — Der. embrassement,
embrasszde, embrasse (verbal subst.).
EMBRASURE, sm. an embrasure. See em-
braser.
EMBROCHER, va. to spit (a fowl). See
broche.
EMBROUILLER, va. to embroil, confuse.
See brouiller.
Embryon, sm. an embryo; from Gr.
• efi,0pvov.
EMBUCHE, sf. an ambush, snare ; verbal sf.
of O. Fr. embucher, originally embuscher.
It. imboscare, Low L. imboscare, pro-
perly to allure into the boscum, or bush.
For origin of boscus, see bois. Imbos-
care becomes embiicher. For i = e see
mettre ; for o = w see curee ; for ca = ch
see § 126 and § 52; for loss of s see Hist.
Gram. p. 81.
fEmbuscade, sf. an ambuscade; in-
trod. in i6th cent, from It. imboscata. It
is a doublet of embusquee.
fEmbusquer, va. to place in ambush;
introd, in i6th cent, from It. imboscare.
ifimender, va. to amend; from L. emen-
dare.
tMERAUDE, sf. an emerald. O. Fr. esme-
ralde. It. smeraldo, from L. smaragdus.
For ara. = esm = em see Hist. Gram. p. 78;
for a = e see § 52; for ed = ld^ud see
amande and agneau.
^merger, vn. to emerge; from L. emer-
ge re. — Der. emergent, emergence.
•)■ iSmeri, sm. emery ; formerly esmeril, in-
trod. in 1 6th cent, from It. smeriglio.
EMERILLON, sm. a merlin ; formerly es-
merillon, dim. of a form esmerle*, compd.
of the prefix es and merle, q. v.
£in6rite, adj. superannuated, who has served
his time ; from L. emeritus.
EMERVEILLER, va. to amaze. See merveille.
^in6tique, sm. an emetic; from Gr. c/xe-
TiKus. — Der. emelisei.
EMETTRE, va. to emit ; from L. emittere.
See mettre.
EMEUTE, sf. a riot, disturbance; from L.
exiuota (that which is disturbed, troubled).
For x = s see ajouter; for loss of s see Hist.
G am. p. 81 ; iox o = eu see accueillir. —
Der. emsutlex,
•ifimigrer, va. to emigrate; from L. emi-
grate — Der. e'TMi^ration, 4migr2int, €migr6.
Eminence, sf. eminence; from L. emi-
nentia.
Eminent, adj. eminent; from L. eminen-
tem.
£missaire, sm. an emissary ; from L. emis-
sarius.
Amission, sf. emission; from L, emis-
sionem.
EMMANCHER, va. to haft, put handle to.
See manche.
EMMENER, va. to lead away. See mener.
EMOI, sm. anxiety, emotion ; fromerly esmoi,
originally csma/. Prov. esmag, It. smago;
verbal subst. of esmaier (to be anxious).
This O. Fr. verb, answering to It. smagare,
is of Germ, origin, being compd. of prefix
es (Lat. ex) and O. H. G. magan, and
means properly to lose all one's ' main,*
strength.
ifimollient, adj. emollient ; from L. emol-
lientem.
Emolument, sm. emolument ; from L.
emolumentum.
ifimonctoire, sm. (Med.) an emunctory ;
from L. emunctorius.
ifimonder, va. to prune, trim ; from L.
emundare. — Der. emondaige.
Emotion, sf. an emotion; from L. emo-
tionem. — Der. emotionnex.
EMOUDRE, va. to grind ; formerly emoldre,
from L. emolere. For regular contr. of
emolere into emorre, see § 52 ; for lr =
Idr see Hist. Gram. p. 73 ; for o = ou see af-
fouage. — Der. emouleux, xemouleux.
EMOUSSER, va. to blunt, dull the edge of.
See mousse.
EMOUSTILLER, va. to exhilarate, rouse.
Origin unknown.
EMOUVOIR, va. to move; from L. emS-
vere. Fox o = ou see affouage; for ere =
oir see Hist. Gram. p. 132.
EMPALER, va. to empale. See pal.
EMPAN, sm. a span ; formerly espan. It.
spanna, a word of Germ, origin. Germ.
spanne.
EMPARER, va. to fortify, in O. Fr. ; compd.
of en and parer, to prepare. S'emparer in
15th cent, meant to fortify oneself, hence to
grow strong, acquire, seize. — Der. xemparer
(compd. of re and emparer, whence verbal
subst. rempar, now remparl).
EMPATER, va. to cover with paste. See
pate. — Der. empdtement.
EMPfeCHER, va. to hinder; formerly em-
pacher, from L. impactare *, deriv. of
impactus, partic. of impingere. Im-
pactare becomes first empacher, then
EMPEIGNE — EN.
139
empecher. For ct = ch see allecher ; for
a = c see § 54 ; for i = e see mettre.
— Der, empbchement, depecher (answering
to a type dis-pactare * ; see de- and em-
pecher for changes. Depecher signifies pro-
perly to free oneself from hindrances,
opposed to empecher, to embarrass oneself).
EMPEIGNE, sf. the upper leather, vamp (of
a shoe). Origin unknown.
EMPEREUR, sm. an emperor ; formerly em-
pereiir, originally empereor, emperedor,
from L. imperatorem. For i = e see
mettre; for a = e see § 54; for loss of t
see abbaye; for eo~eu see aieul and § 79.
EMPESER, va. to starch. It rnay be seen
in §§ 102, 103 why the deriv. of empois is
empeser, and not empoiser.
EMPESTER, va. to taint. See pesle.
EMPETRER, va. to entangle, embarrass.
See depitrer.
Emphase, sm. emphasis ; from L. empha-
sis. — Der. emphai\<\\xe.
Emphyt^ose, sf. emphyteusis (legal) ; for-
merly emphyteuse, from L. emphyteusis.
EMPIETER, va. to encroach. See pied. —
Der. empieiement.
EMPIRE, sm. empire ; from L. imperixun.
For i =» e see mettre ; for e = i see
§ 59-
EMPIRER, va. to make worse, aggravate.
See pire.
Empirique, adj. empiric; from L. empi-
ricus. — Der. empirhme.
Empirisme, sm. empiricism. See empir^
ique.
EMPLACER, va. to place, establish. See
place. — Der. emplacement, xemplacer.
Empl^tre, sm. plaster ; formerly emplastre,
from L. emplastrum.
EMPLETTE, sf. a purchase ; from L. impli-
cita *. This word means ' expenditure ' in
several medieval texts : thus a 1 2th-cent.
regulation says, ' implicitam vero decla-
ramus emptionem mercium per commit-
tentes ordinatam.' Implicita, regularly
contrd. (§ 51) into implic'ta, becomes
emplette. For i = e see mettre ; for
ct = tt see § 168. Emplette is a doublet
of implicite, q. v.
EMPLIR, va. to fill ; from L. implere. For
i = e see mettre ; for e = i see § 59. —
Der. xemplir.
EMPLOYER, va. to employ ; from L. impli-
care, which in medieval documents means
to employ for some one's profit. We read
in a I3th-cent. document, ' Dedit 40
libras implicandas in augmentum com-
munitatis.* For loss of c, impli(cUre, see
affouage ; for i = e see mettre ; for i = oi
see boire. Employer is a doublet of impli-
quer, q. v. — Der. emploi (verbal subst.), em-
ploye.
EMPOIS, sm. starch. See poix.
EMPOISONNER, va. to poison. See poison.
— Der. e?npoisonnement, empoisonnenr.
EMPORTER, va. to carry oflf; formerly en-
porter, for entporter, from L. indd portare.
For inde = ent see souvent ; for ent = en see
en. — Der. emportement, emporte, lemporter.
EMPOTER, va. to pot (flowers, etc.). See
pot.
EMPREINDRE, va. to imprint ; from L.
imprimere. For imere = eindre see
geindre. Empreindre is a doublet of im-
primer, q. v. — Der. empreinte (strong partic.
subst., see absoiite).
EMPRESSER (S'), vpr. to be eager, ardent.
See presse. — Der. empresse, empressement.
EMPRUNTER, va. to borrow : from L. im-
promutuare *, compd. of promutuari,
which is from promutuum, a loan.
Inipromutud,re, contrd. into improm'-
tuare (see § 52), changes ua into a, see
§ 52 ; whence impromtare, whence em-
prunter. For i = e see mettre; for m = «
see change ; for o = « see ctiree. — Der. em-
primt (verbal subst.), emprnnttnt.
Empyree, sm. the empyrean ; from Gr.
'ifxiTvpos.
Empyreume, sm. the empyreum ; from L.
empyreuma. — Der. empyreumntique.
ifimulation, sf. emulation ; from L. aemu-
lationem. — Der. emulateur.
ifimule, sm. a rival ; from L. aemulus.
ifimulgent, adj. emulgent ; from L. emul-
gentem.
ifimulsion, sf. an emulsion ; from L. emul-
sion em *, deriv. of emulsus. — Der. emul-
sionner, emulsif.
EN, prep, in ; in 9th-cent. Fr. tn, from L, in,
by change of i into e, see mettre.
EN, rel. pron. of him, her, etc. ; formerly ent^
originally int, from L. inde. For i = e see
mettre ; for nd = nt = n see § 121.
Indd had, in popular Lat., the sense of
ex illo, ab illo : ' Cadus erat vini ; indS
implevi Cirneam ' (Plautus, Aniphyt. i. l).
This use of ind§ was very common in
Low Lat., and Merovingian documents
have many examples of it : thus in a For-
mula of the 7th cent., • Si potes inde man-
ducare ' = si tu peux e n manger ; in a Di-
ploma of 543, ' Ut mater nostra ecclesia
Viennensis indd nostra haeres fiat,' etc.
K
130
ENCA DRER — ENDIVE.
Indd becomes in O. Fr. inl, a word extant
in the Oaths of 842 ; in the loth cent, it is
ent, a form still surviving in souvent, from
subinde ; in the 12th cent. en.
ENCM)RER, va. to frame. See cadre.
ENCAISSER, va. to pack in a case. See
caisse. — Der. encaisse (verbal subst.), en-
caissemeni.
ENCAN, stn. an auction. O. Fr. encant,
en quant, originally inquant, from L. in-
quantum. For qu = c see car; for i = e
see meltre.
ENCAQUER, va. to pack in barrels. See
caque.
Encastrer, va. to fit in, set in ; from L.
incastrare (in Isidore of Seville).
Eucaustique, sf. encaustic; from L. en-
causticus.
ENCEINDRE, va. to encircle, surround ; from
L. incingere. For changes see ceindre. —
Der. enceinte (a circuit of walls, which sur-
rounds a city).
ENCEINTE, s/. circuit (of walls), enclosure;
from L. incincta (used of a pregnant
woman in Isidore of Seville). For i = esee
met(re; for ct = t see § 168.
ENCENS, sm. incense ; from L. incensum
(in Isidore of Seville). For i = e see mettre.
— Der. encensei, encefisoir,
Enc6phale, sm. the brain ; from Gr. kyai-
(paXov. — Der. encephalic, encephalite.
ENCHANTER, va. to enchant, bewitch;
from L. incantare. For changes see
chanter. — Der. enchantemtnl, enchanteuT,
desenchanter.
ENCHERIR, va. to bid for, outbid. See
chere. — Der. enchere (verbal subst.), en-
cAerissement, encherisseur, xencherir, sxxren-
cherir, surenchere.
ENCHEVfiTRER, va. to halter, entangle in a
noose; from L. incapistrare, used by
Apuleius. For i = e see mettre; for ca =
che see § § 126 and 54 ; for p = v see ar river ;
for loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. Si. — Der.
enchevetremtnt.
ENCHIFRENER, va. to stop up the nose-
passages. Origin unknown.
Enchymose, sf. enchymosis; from Gr.
Enclaver, va. to enclose; from L. incla-
vare*, a medieval word, meaning to shut
in. Its doublet is ejiclouer, q. v. — Der.
enclave (verbal subst.).
ENCLIN, adj. inclined, prone ; from L. in-
clinis. For i=e see mettre.
ENCLORE, va. to enclose ; from L. inclau-
dere* (forincludere). Forolaudere =
clore see clore. Enclore is a doublet of in-
clure. — Der. enclos (partic. subst.).
ENCLOS, sm. a close, enclosure. See enclore.
ENCLOUER, va. to prick (a horse's foot), to
spike (a gun). See clouer. — Der. enclouzge.
ENCLUME, sf. an anvil; from L. incu-
dinem. For in = en see mettre ; for -udi-
nem = -vme see amertume : the intercala-
tion of / is remarkable.
ENCOGNER, va. to wedge in, to strike in.
See cogne and coin. — Der. encognxat.
ENCOGNURE, sf. a corner. See encogner.
ENCOLURE, sf. neck and shoulders (of a
horse), appearance, mien (of man). See
col.
ENCOMBRE, sm. an impediment. See de-
combres, compd, of the prefixes de and en
and a radical combre*, signifying a heap.
The Lat.CTimiiluslost its u regularly(§ 51),
so becoming cum'lus ; m'l intercalating a
regular b (see absoudre), it became ctim-
blus ; the 1 became r (see apotre), and
thus we have cumbrus, a heap, found in
several Merovingian documents, e. g. in the
Gesta Regum_^Francorum, chap. 25.
ENCONTRE (A L'), against, counter; pro-
perly a verbal subst. of O. Fr. encontrer,
compd. of contre. — Der. rencontrer.
ENCORBELLEMENT, sm. (Archit.) a corbel-
table. See corbeau.
ENCORE, adv. again ; formerly ancore, from
L. banc boram, by loss of initial b ; see
atelier.
ENCOURAGER, va. to encourage. See
courage. — Der. encouragement.
ENCOURIR, va. to incur ; from L. incur-
rere. For changes see coiirir and en.
ENCRASSER, va. to dirty, soil. See crasse.
Its doublet is engraisser, q. v.
ENCRE, sf. ink; formerly enque, originally
enca ; from L. encaustum, by intercalating
r (see chanvre). This word preserves the
Gr. accentuation (eyKavarov), not the Lat.
(encailstum). — Der. encrier.
Encyclique, adj. encyclical ; from Gr.
€yKVK\l0S.
Encyclop6d.ie, sf. an encyclopaedia ; from
Gr. kyKv/cXonaiSda. — Der. encyclopediqxic,
encyclopediste.
End6mique, adj. endemic; from Gr.
hdrjpuKos.
ENDfiVER, vn. to be vexed, wild, mad.
Origin unknown.
ENDIVE, sf. endive ; from L. intyba *, fern.
of intybus (chicory). For i = « see mettre;
for b = z; see avant and § 1 13 ; for t = c? see
aider and §117.
ENDOLORIR — ENGRENER.
13
ENDOLORIR, vn. to be in pain. See dou-
leur.
ENDORMIR, va. to lull to sleep. See dor-
mir.
ENDOSSER, va. to don, put on one's back.
See dos. — Der. endos (verbal subst.), en-
dossement, endosseur.
ENDROIT, sm. a place ; compd. of en and
droit, q. v. Endroit, an adv. in O. Fr.,
meaning ' right before one,' became later a
subst,, meaning ' a place right before one.'
Endroit is a doublet of indirect, q. v.
ENDUIRE, va. to coat, cover ; from L. in-
dueere. For regular contr, of inducere
into induc're see § 51; for cr = ir see
benir ; for in = en see mettre. Enduire
is a doublet of induire. — Der. enduit (partic.
subst.).
ENDURCIR, va. to harden. See dur. —
Der. ewrfwrcissement,
ENDURER, va. to endure ; from L, indu-
rare. For i = e see mettre. — Der. endur-
ant,
ifinergie, sf. energy; from L, energia*.
— Der. energ'xqat.
!finerguin%ne, smf. a demoniac, fanatic;
from Gr. kvepyovfievos.
jfinerver, va. to enervate ; from L, ener-
vare,
ENFANCE, sf. infancy; from L. infantia.
For tia, = ce see agencer.
ENFANT, sm. a child, infant ; from L. in-
fantem. For m=e« see mettre. Its
doublet is infant, q. v. — Der. enfanttx, en-
fant'm, fw/h«rillage, enfanttmtnt.
ENFARINER, va. to flour, Seefarine.
ENFER, sm. hell. Prov. enfern, It. inferno,
from L. infer mim. For i = e see mettre;
for rn = r see aubour.
ENFERMER, va. to shut in. See fermer.—
Der. renfermer.
ENFILER, va. to thread. See;?/,— Der. enjil-
ade.
ENFIN, adv. at last. See en znd Jin.
ENFLAMMER, va. to inflame ; from L. in-
flammare. For i = e see mettre.
ENFLER, va. to inflate ; from L. inflare.
For i = e see mettre. — Der. desenfler, xen-
fler, enflnre.
ENFONCER, va. to sink, plunge, bury. See
fond. — Der. enfoncement, lenfoncer.
ENFORCIR, va. to strengthen. See force.
ENFOUIR, va. to bury, dig in ; from L. in-
fodere. For loss of medial d see accabler ;
for i = e see mettre; for e = z see § 59; for
o = ou see affouage. — Der. enfouKse-
ment.
ENFOURCHER, va. to stride, bestride. See
fourcJie.
ENFOURNER, va. to put in the oven. Sec
four.
ENFREINDRE, va. to infringe. Seefreindre.
ENFUIR (S'), vpr. to run away. See en and '
fuir.
ENGAGE ANT, adj. engaging. See engager.
ENGAGEMENT, sm. an engagement. See
engager.
ENGAGER, va. to engage. See gage. — Der.
engagea.nt, engagement.
ENGAINER, va. to sheath. See gatne.—
Der. rengainer.
ENGEANCE.s/. breed (of animals). See enger.
ENGELURE, sf. a chilblain; from O. Fr.
verb engeler. See geler.
ENGENDRER, va. to engender; from L.
ingenerare. For regular contr. of in-
generare to ingen'rare see § 52; for
i = e see mettre; for n'r = ndr see ab-
soudre.
ENGER, va. to burden, multiply. Origin
unknown. — Der. engennce.
ENGIN, sm. skill, engine. It. ingegno, from
L. ingenium, used for a war-engine by
Tertullian, de Pallio : ' Cum tamen ultima-
rent tempora patriae et aries jam Romanus
in muros quondam suos auderet ; stupuere
illico Carthaginienses ut novum extraneum
ingenium ' ; and by Isidore of Seville,
* Apud antiquos Minerva vocata quasi Dea
et manus artium variarum. Hanc enim
multorum ingeniorum prohibent.* For
i = e see mettre ; for e = i see § 59.
ENGLOBER, va. to unite. See globe,
ENGLOUTIR, va. to engulf, absorb ; from
L. inglutire, in Isidore of Seville. For
u = OM see § 90. — Der. englout'issement.
ENGORGER, va. to obstruct, choke. See
gorge. — Der. engorgement, rengorger.
ENGOUER, va. to obstruct (the throat).
Origin unknown. — Der. engouement.
ENGOURDIR, va. to benumb. See gourd.
— Der. engourdissement.
ENGRAISSER, va. to fatten, manure ; vn. to
grow fat; from L. incrassare. For i=e
see mettre; for G=g see adjuger; for
B, = ai see § 54. Engraisser is a doublet of
encrasser, q. v. — Der. engrais (verbal
subst.), engraissement, engraisseur.
ENGRAVER, va. to bed in sand. See gravier.
— Der. engravement,
ENGRENER, va. to put corn (into the hopper);
formerly engrainer. See grain.
ENGRENER, va. to tooth (a wheel) ; from
L. increnare *, from crena, tooth of a
K 2
132
ENHARDIR — ENTENDRE.
wheel. For 1 = « see mettre ; for O — g'
see adjuger. — Der. engremge.
ENHARDIR, va. to embolden. See hardi.
£nigrQatique, adj. enigmatic. See enigme.
£lligm.e, sm. an enigma ; from L. aenigma.
— Der. 6nigmaA(\Mc.
ENIVRER, va. to intoxicate. See ivre. —
Der. enivremtnX., c«ivrant.
ENJAMBER, va. to stride. See jamhe.—
Der. enjambemtnt, enjamb^e.
ENJOINDRE, va. to enjoin; from L. in-
jungere. For changes see en and joindre.
ENJOLER, va. to inveigle. See geole Der.
enjohm.
ENJOLIVER, va. to adorn, embellish. See
jolt. — Der. ««;o/*Wment, enjolitfuxt, enjoliv-
eur.
ENJOUE, adj. playful ; properly p. p. of O.Fr.
enjouer, corapd. oijouer, q. v. — Der. enjoue-
ment.
ENLACER, va. to entwine, clasp. See lac.
— Der. enlacemtnl.
ENLEVER, va. to raise, lift, carry oflF. See
en and lever. — Der. etilevevataX.
Enluminer, va. to illuminate ; from L. in
(see en and Ituninare) properly to brighten,
whence to paint with brilliant colours. Its
doublet is illuminer, q. v. — Der. enlumin-
eur, enluminuTe.
ENNEMI, sm. an enemy ; from L, inimicus.
For icus = i see § 212 ; for i = « see mettre.
n here becomes nn, as in m on eta, mon-
naie,
ENNUI, sm. ennui, weariness ; formerly enui,
meaning annoyance, pain, hatred. Sp.
enojo, O. Venet, inodio, from L, inodio.
In the Glosses of Cassel (Charlemagne's
time) we have in odio habut, i. e. I was
sick and tired of. For iii = en see en, for
odio = tti see alouette and cuider. — Der.
ennuyer, ennuytxxx.
ENONCER, va. to enunciate, state ; from L.
enuntiare. For changes see annoncer. —
Der. e«o«ciation, enonce.
ENORGUEILLIR, va. to make proud. See
orgueil.
^nornie, adj. enormous; from L. enormis.
— Der. enormement.
^normit^, sf. an enormity; from L. enor-
mitatem.
ENQUERIR, vn. to enquire ; from L. in-
qxiirere. For changes see en and acquerir.
ENQUfiTE, sf. inquiry ; formerly enqueste,
from L. inquisita; strong partic. subst.,
see absoute. For regular contr. into in-
qtiis'ta see § 51; for i = e see mettre ;
for loss of s see Hist. Gram. p. 8i. —
Der. enquktuT (whose doublet is inquisiteur,
q.v.).
ENRAGER, va. to enrage. See rage.
ENRAYER, va. to put spokes in a wheel.
See rayon. — Der. enrayme.
ENREGISTRER, va. to register, enrol. See
registre. — Der. enregistrement.
ENRICHIR, va. to enrich. See riche.
ENR6lER, va. to enrol. See role. Its doublet
is enrouler, q.v. — Der. enrolement, enroleur.
ENROUER, va. to make hoarse ; from L.
inraucare, deriv. of raucus. For loss of
medial c see affouage; for au = ow see
alouette ; for i = e see mettre. — Der. enroue-
ment.
ENROULER, va. to roll up. See rouler.
Its doublet is enroler, q. v.
ENSABLER, va. to run on a sandbank. See
sable. — 'Der. ensablemtnt.
ENSEIGNE, sf. a sign, ensign. It. insegne,
from L. insignia *. For i = e see mettre ;
for i = ei see ceinture. Enseigne is a doublet
of insigne.
ENSEIGNER, va. to teach; from L. insig-
nare *, properly to engrave, then to teach.
For changes see enseigne. — Der. enseigne-
ment, renseigner.
ENSEMBLE, adv. together; from L. in-
simul. For i = e see mettre, for siniul =
semble see assembler.
ENSEMENCER, va. to sow. See semence.
ENSEVELIR, va. to bury ; from L. insepe-
lire*, compd. of sepelire. For i = c see
mettre ; for p = v see §111. — Der. ensevel-
issement.
ENSQRCELER, va. to bewitch. See sorcier.
— Der. ensorce/lement, ensorceleut.
ENSUITE, adv. afterwards. See en and suite.
ENSUIVRE (S'), vpr. to ensue. See en and
suivre.
ENTABLEMENT, sm. an entablature. See
table.
ENTACHER, va. to infect. See tacher.
ENTAILLER, va. to cut away. See tailler.
• — Der. entaille (verbal subst.), entaillme.
ENTAMER, va. to cut in, attack. Prov. enta-
menar, from Lat. form intaminare, compd.
of in and a radical taminare, which is found
also in contaminare, attaminare. Inta-
minare, contrd. regularly (see § 52)
to intam'nare, becomes entamer. For
i = e see mettre, for nin = m see § 168.
ENTASSER, va. to heap up. See ^as.— Der.
entassement.
ENTE, sf a graft. See enter.
ENTENDRE, va. to hear, understand ; from
L. intendere, to apply to, direct towards.
ENTENTE — ENVA HIR.
^S3
thence pay attention, thence hear. For
- changes see en and attendre. — Der. entente
(partic. subst., see absoute), en/e«c?ant (whose
doublet is mtendant),entendement, entendeur,
entendn.
ENTENTE, sf. a meaning, agreement. See
entendre.
ENTER, va. to graft, engraft ; from L. im-
potare *, deriv. of impotus, a graft, in
the Lex Sahca. Impetus is Gr. e/xipvTov.
Irapot^re, contrd. regularly (see § 52)
into imp'tare, becomes e?iter. For pt = /
see acheter, for m = « see changer, for i = e
see mettre. — Der. eiite (verbal subst.), ewAire.
ENTERINER, va. to ratify; "from O. Fr.
enterin, entire, complete, which answers to
a Lat. type integrinus *, deriv. of in-
tegrum. For in = m see en, for gr = r
see § 168. — Der. enterinement.
ENTERRER, va. to inter, bury. See terre. —
, Der. enterrement.
ENTETER, va. to affect the head, make
giddy, vain. See tete. — Der. entetement.
Enthousiasme, sm. enthusiasm ; from- Gr.
h9ovaiacfx6s. — Der. enthousiasmtr, enthou-
siaste.
Enthousiaste, sm. an enthusiast. See
enthousiasme.
Enthym^me, sm. an enthymeme; from L.
enthymema.
ENTIER, adj. entire. Prov. enteir, It. intero,
from L. integrum. For in. = en see en,
for e = ie see § 67, for gr = r see § 168.
Entier is a doublet of integre, q. v.
ENTICHER, va. to spoil, taint. Origin
unknown.
Entite, sf. an entity; in schol. Lat. enti-
tatem *, deriv. of entem.
Entomologie, sf. entomology; from Gr.
evTo/jLov and A.070S. — Der. entomologique,
entomologiste.
ENTONNER, va. to tun. See tonne.— Der.
entonno'ix.
ENTONNER, va. to begin (a song), to sing.
See ton.
ENTORSE, ./. a sprain. See tordre.
ENTORTILLER, va. to twist, wind. See
tortiller.
ENTOUR, sm. neighbourhood. See tour. —
Der. entourtx, entourz^Q, alentour.
ENTOURNURE, sf. slope (of sleeves, etc.).
See tournure.
ENTRAILLES, sf. pi. bowels, entrails. Prov.
intralia, from L. intrania*, in the Lex
Salica : ' Si vero intra costas vulnus in-
traverit, et usque ad intrania pervenerit.'
Intrania is from L. interanea (Pliny).
For regular loss of e see § 5 2 ; for ea — ia
see abreger. Intrania in turn becomes
enlrailles. For in = en see en; for n = /
see § 163.
ENTRAIN, sm. spirits, animation. See
entrainer.
ENTRAINER, va. to carry away, hurry on,
inspirit. See en and trainer. — Der. entrain
(verbal subst.), entralnement.
ENTRAVER, va. to clog, trammel, put an
entrave to act as a clog. From L. tra-
bem comes a compd. intrabare *, whence
entraver. For in = en see en, for b = v
see § 113. — Der. entrave (verbal subst.).
ENTRE, prep, between ; from L. intra.
For in — en see eti.
ENTRE-BAILLER, va. to half-open. See
entre and bailler.
tEntrechat, sm. cutting (in dancing),
introd. in 1 6th cent., with many other dance-
terms, from It. intrecciato, in the phrase
capriola intrecciata.
ENTREE, sf. entrance, admission. See entrer.
ENTREFAITES, sf. (in the) interval, i.e. entre.
ENTRELACER, va. to interlace. See lacer.
— Der. efitrelacs, entrelacement.
ENTREMELER, va. to intermingle. Seemeler.
ENTREMETS, sm. a side-dish. See mets.
ENTREMETTRE, va. to interpose (an ob-
stacle). See mettre. — Der. entremetteui .
ENTREMISE, sf. mediation. See mise.
ENTREPOSER, va. to warehouse. See e?itre
and poser. Its doublet is interposer. — Der.
entrepot (like depot from deposer), entre-
poseuT, entreposxizirt.
ENTREPRENDRE, va. to undertake. See
prendre. — Der. entreprise (partic. subst.),
entreprena.nt, e?itrepreneuT.
ENTRER, va. to enter; from L. intrare.
For in = c« see en. — Der. entree (partic.
subst.), rentrer.
ENTRE-SOL, sm. the suite of rooms between
ground-floor and first-floor. See entre and sol.
ENTRETENIR, va. to hold together, sup-
port. See entre and tenir. — Der. entre^ca
(verbal subst.).
ENTREVOIR, va. to see imperfectly, catch a
glimpse of. See entre and voir. — Der.
entrevwe (partic. subst.).
^nura^ration, sf. enumeration; from L.
enumerationem . — Der. enumeratit
^num^rer, va. to enumerate; from L.
enumerare,
ENVAHIR, va. to invade. Sp. envadir. It.
invadire, from L. invaders. For loss of
medial d see accabler ; for intercalation of
h see Hist. Gram. p. 72; for xa. = en see
134
ENVELOPPER — ^PA ULE.
mettre ; for ere = ir see § 59. Invadere
having lost its d became in O. Fr. enva-ir ;
the intercalated h is put in to save the hiatus,
as is also done in trader e, trahir. h is added
at the beginning of words, such as altus,
haut, see Hist. Gram. p. 79, Even in Lat.
we find the forms hornamentum, hobi-
tus, hac, for ornamentum, obitus, ac,
in Griiter's Recueil d'Inscriptions. The as-
piration of the letter k in Fr. words is due
to the influence of corresponding Germ,
words, such as, hoch, heulen, etc., compd.
with Fr. haut, Hurler, etc. This remark is
due to Professor Max Miiller, who has
worked it out in detail in the Zeitschrift fiir
vergleichende Sprachforschung (v. 11-24:
•iiber deutsche Schattirung romanischer
Worte'). In my Historical Grammar
(Engl. ed. 1869) I rejected Professor Max
Miiller's theory, but I now believe it to be
entirely correct. — Der. envahisseni, envah-
issement.
ENVELOPPER, va. to wrap up. See develop-
per. — Der, enveloppe (verbal subst.).
ENVENIMER, va. to envenom. See venin.
ENVERGUER, va. to bend (sails). See ver-
gue. — Der. tnvergwxt (the bending of sails,
thence metaph. the unfolding of birds'
wings).
ENVERS, sm. the reverse, wrong side (of
Stuffs); from L. inversus. For in. = en
see en. Envers is a doublet of inverse, q. v.
ENVERS, prep, towards ; from L. en and
vers, q. v.
ENVI, prep, in emulation of. For etymology
of this word see renvier.
EN VIE, sf. envy, desire; from L. invidia.
For in = en see en ; for loss of d see ac-
cabler. — Der. enviev.
ENVIER, va. to envy. See envie. — Der. en-
wable, envieux.
ENVIRON, adv. about. See virer.—Der. en-
vironner.
ENVISAGER, va. to look at, consider. See
visage.
ENVOI, sm. a sending, parcel. See envoyer.
ENVOLER (S'), vpr. to fly away. See en and
voter.
ENVOOTER, va. to enchant (by melting etc.
a wax figure) ; originally envolter, from
medieval L. invultudre*, i. e. to make a
waxen face, deriv. of vultus. For loss of
ii see § 52; for a = e see §54; for
in = en see en; for iil = o/ = Ott see agneau.
— Der. envotkemcnt.
ENVOYER, va. to send ; formerly enveier,
originally entveier, from L. indSviare*.
For inde = ent = en see en ; for viare =
voyer (by change of i to oi) see boire. —
Der. envoi (verbal subst.), xenvoyer.
£pacte, sf. the epact; from L. epactae.
EPAGNEUL, sm. a spaniel ; in Montaigne
espagneul, in Rabelais espagnol. Avec une
demi-douzaine d'espagnols, et deux levriers,
vous voila roy des perdrix et lievres pour
tout cet hyver, says Gargantua, i. 12.
This breed coming from Spain got the
name of chiens espagnols, or, as is now
said, chiens epagneuls. For o = eu see § 79 ;
for e$p=iep see Hist. Gram. p. 81. £pag-
neul is a doublet of espagnol, q. v.
EPAIS, adj. thick ; formerly espais, originally
espois, from L. spissus. For i = o/ see
boire; for oi = at see § 62; for sp =
esp = ip see Hist. Gram. p. 78. — Der. epais-
sir, epa/sseur, epct/ssissement.
EPANCHER, va. to pour out ; formerly es-
pancher, from L. expandicare * (deriv. of
expandere. Expandicdre, contrd. re-
gularly (see § 52) into expand'care, be-
comes epancher. For x = s see ajouter;
for es = e see Hist. Gram. p. 81 ; for dc =
c see § 168 ; for e = cA see § 126; for a = e
see § 54. — Der. epanchemtnX.
EPANDRE, va. to spread; ioxmexXy espandre ,
from L. expanders. For regular loss of
penult, e see § 51; for ex = es see ajouter ;
for es = e' see Hist. Gram, p. 81. — Der. re-
fandre.
EPANOUIR, va. to expand, smoothen ; for-
merly espanouir, developed from O. Fr.
espanir from espandir, which from L. ex-
pandere. For expandere = expandere
see courir ; for ex = es = e see ajouter ; for
e = t see § 59. — Der. epanouissement.
EPARGNER, va. to spare. Origin unknown.
— Der. epargne (verbal subst.).
EPARPILLER, va. to scatter, disperse ; for-
merly esparpiller, properly, in the middle
ages, to scatter, fly off like a butterfly.
Esparpiller is compd. of ex and the radical
parpille *, which answers to L. papilio.
For addition of r see chanvre. This ety-
mology is fully proved by It. sparpagliare,
similarly formed from parpaglione ; and
Prov. esfarfalha ixom falfalla. — Der. epar-
pillexxient.
EPARS, adj. scattered, straggling ; formerly es-
pars, from L. sparsus. For 8p = esp = ep
see Hist. Gram. p. 78.
E PATER, va. to break off the foot (of
a glass). See palte.
EPAULE, sf. a shoulder; formerly espaule,
originally espalle, from L. spatula (used
^PA VE — Episode.
-^35
by Apicius). Spatula, contrd. regularly
into spat'la (see able and § 51), becomes
espalle by assimilation of tl into // (see
§ 168), and by sp = esp (see Hist. Gram. p.
78). Espalle then becomes espaule by al
= au (see agneau); lastly epaule by loss of
s (see Hist. Gram. p. 81). Epaule is a
doublet of spatule, q. v. — Der. epaulet,
epaulement, epaulette.
EPAVE, adj. stray, sf. a waif; formerly es-
pave, a word now applied only to things
lost, though still used, in some legal phrases,
of animals, aszm cheval epave. In O.Fr. epave
was only applied to animals, not to things.
Espave comes from L, expavidus, i. e.
frightened, then running away, strayed.
For ex = e5 = e see aj outer and Hist, Gram,
p. 8 1 ; for loss of two last atonic syllables
see Hist. Gram. p. 34.
EPEAUTRE, sm, spelt, bearded wheat ; for-
merly espeautre, Sp. espelta. It. spelta, from
L. spelta. For s-p = esp = ep see Hist.
Gram. p. 78 ; for el = eal see eau ; for eal
= eau see agneau; for intercalation of r
see chanvre.
EPEE, sf. a sword ; formerly espee, originally
spede, It. spada, from L. spatha (Tacitus).
For sip = esp = ep see Hist. Gram. p. 78;
for ata = ee see § 201, Spee is a doublet
of spathe, espade,
EPELER, va. to spell ; formerly espeler
(meaning in the middle ages to explain,
enunciate generally), a word of Germ,
origin, O. H. G. spellun. — Der. epellation.
EPERDU, adj. distracted. See perdu.
EPERLAN, sm. a sprat, smelt ; formerly es-
perlan, originally esperlanc, from Germ.
spierling. For sp = esp = ep see Hist. Gram.
. p. 78-
EPERON, sm. a spur ; formerly esperon, es-
poron, from O. H. G. sporon. For sp = esp —
ep see Hist. Gram. p. 78. — Der. eperonner.
EPERVIER, sm. a sparrow-hawk; formerly
espervier, Prov. esparvier, It. sparviere,
from O. H. G. sparvari. For sp = esp = ep
see Hist. Gram. p. 78.
fiph61ide, sf. a freckle; from L. epheli-
dem.
!fiph.6m5re, adj. ephemeral ; from Gr. I<^^-
lifpos.
;fiphem§rides, sf. pi. ephemerides, journal ;
from L. ephemeridem.
EPI, SOT. an ear (of corn), spike ; formerly espi,
from L. spicus * (a masc. form of spica).
For sp = esp = ep see Hist. Gram. p. 78 ;
for icu8 = i see § 212.
EPICE. sf. spice, pi. sweetmeats; formerly
espice, from L. species (used for spice in
the Digest, de Publicanis et vectigalibus :
' species pertinentes ad vectigal, cinna-
monum, piper longum.' For sp = esp =: ep
see Hist. Gram. p. 78; fore = zsee § 59.
Epice is a doublet of espece, q. v. — Der,
epicier, epicene, epicet.
!]6pid6inie, sf. an epidemic ; from Gr.
km^fxios, sc. voaos. — Der. epidemiqae.
!]6pideniique, adj. epidemic See epidemic.
Ifipiderme, sm. epidermis, cuticle ; from L.
epidermis.
EPIER, va. to spy ; formerly espier. It.
spiare, a word of Germ origin, Engl, to spy,
O. H. G. spehen. For sp = esp = ep see
Hist. Gram. p. 78.
EPIEU, sw. a boar-spear; formerly espieu,
originally espiel, from L. spiculum. For
regular contr. into spic'lum see § 51.
For sp = esp = ep see esperer ; for cl = il see
abeille ; for espiel = espieu see agneau.
Epigrammatique, adj. epigrammatic ;
from L. epigrammaticus.
ifipigramme, sf. an epigram; from L.
epigramma.
ifipigraphe, sf an epigraph; from Gr.
I7ri7pa077.
i^pilepsie, sf. epilepsy; from L, epilepsia.
ifipileptique, a^'. epileptic ; from L. epi-
lepticus.
ifipiler, va. to depilate, strip of hair; from
L.epilare.deriv. of pilus. — Der. epihto'ire.
Epilogue, sm. an epilogue; from L. epilo-
gus. — Der. epiloguex.
EPINARD, sm. spinach. See epine.
EPINE, sf. a thorn ; formerly espine, from L.
spina. For 8jp = esp = €p see Hist. Gram,
p. 78. — Der. epineux, epinoche, epinihre,
epimxA (so called from the thorn-shaped
dents in its calyx), epine-vinette.
t Epinette, sf. a spinet ; in the l6th cent.
espinette, from It. spinnetla.
EPINGLE, sf. a pin : formerly espingle, from
L. spiniila, properly a little thorn. For
regular contr. into spin'la see able and
§ 51; for n'l = ngl see absotidre ; for
sp = esp = ep see Hist. Gram. p. 78. Epingle
is a doublet of spinule. — Der. epinglette,
epingler.
EPINOCHE, sm. a stickleback. See epine.
Epique. adj. epic ; from L. epicus.
ifipiscopal, adj. episcopal; from L. epi-
scopalis.
ifipiscopat, SOT. the episcopate; from L.
episcopatus. Its doublet is eveche, q. v,
ifipisode, SOT. an episode ; from Gr. kmiff-
udiov. — Der. episodiqne.
136
Spispastique — EquitjE.
ifipispastique, adj. (Med.) epispastic;
from Gr. (manaaTiKot.
fePISSER, va. to splice ; formerly espisser,
word of Germ, origin, Engl, to splice. —
Der. epissoire, epissmc.
fipistolaire, arf/. epistolary ; from L. epi-
st Claris. Its doublet is epistolier.
ifipitaphe, sm. an epitaph; from L. epi-
taphium.
iJ^pithalame, sm. a marriage song; from L.
epithalamium.
]]@pithdte, sm. an epithet; from L. epi-
thetum, used by Macrobius.
Epitome, sm. an epitome; from L. epitome.
EPITRE, sf. an epistle, letter; formerly
epistre ; originally epistle, from L. episto-
la. For regular contr. into epist'la see
§51; for 1 = r see apotre ; for loss of s
see Hist. Gram. p. 81.
;fipizootie, sf. distemper; from Gr, inl
and ^wov. — Der. epizootique.
EPLORE, adj. weeping. See pleurer.
EPLOYE, adj. spread (eagle) ; from L. expli-
catus. For changes see ployer; for -atus =
-^' see §201. Eploye \sz6.o\ih\tloi explique.
EPLUCHER, va. to pick, examine closely;
formerly esplucher, espelucher. See peluche.
— Der. epluchsige, epluchement, epluchenr,
epluchoir, epluchure.
EPOINTER, va. to break the point off. See
^ pointe.
EFOIS, sm. branches (of horns) ; formerly
espois, from O. H. G. spiz, a pointed piece
of wood, whence the pointed antlers of the
stag. For sp = esp = ep see Hist. Gram,
p. 78 ; for i = oi see boire.
EPONGE, sf. a sponge; formerly esponge,
from L. spongia. For 8p = esp = ep see
Hist. Gram. p. 78. — Der. eponge.r.
;fipop6e, sm. an epopee ; from Gr. eiroiroiia.
^poque, sf. an epoch ; from Gr. eiroxv-
EPOUSER, va. to espouse, marry; formerly
espouser, originally esposer. It. sposare, from
L. sponsare (used in the Digest). For
ns = s see atne ; for sp = esp = ep see Hist.
Gram. p. 78; for o = ow see affouage.
EPOUSSETER, va. to dust. See ponssiere. —
Der. epoussete.
EPOUVANTER, ra. to scare, frighten; for-
merly espouvanter, originally espaventer. It.
spaventare, from L. expaventare (deriv.
of expaventem, p. p. of expavere). For
ex=es = e see ajouter and Hist. Gram,
p. 78 ; a = ou and e = a are peculiar changes
which have taken place since the word be-
came French. — Der. epouvante (verbal
subst.), epouvantzWt, epouvantzW.
EPOUX, sm. a spouse, husband; from L.
sponsus. For changes see ipouser, — Der.
e.pousziWts, ^pouseur.
EPREINDRE, va. to express, squeeze out ;
from L. exprimere. For primere =prein-
dre see empreindre. Epreindre is a doublet
of exprimer, q. v. — Der. epreinte (verbal
Subst.).
EPRENDRE (S'), vpr. to become enamoured.
See prendre. — Der. epris.
EPREUVE, sf. a trial, proof. See eprouver.
EPROUVER, va. to try. See prouver.—Dtx.
^preuve (verbal subst.), eprouvette.
EPUISER, va. to exhaust. See puiser. — Der.
epuisemtnt, epuisMe, inepw/sable.
EPURER, va. to purify. See pur.— Dei.
epure (verbal subst.), epur&tion.
EQUARRIR, va. to quarry, cut into an equerre,
q. V. — Der. equarriss&ge, equarrisseuT.
Ifiquateur, sm. the equator; from L. ae-
quatorem * (i. e. a circle dividing the earth
into two equal parts). — Der. equaiona\.
ifiquatorial, adj. equatorial. See equateur.
Equation, sf. an equation; from L. aequa-
tionem.
EQUERRE, sf. a square (instrument); formerly
esquerre, originally esquarre, verbal subst.
of a type esquarrerer * , answering to L.
exquadrare *, whence the name equerre
for the instrument which enables us to draw
right angles. Squerre is a doublet oi square,
escadre, q. v. Exquadrare * produces es-
quarrer* by ex ==65, see ajouter; by es = e,
see Hist. Gram. p. 81; by dr = rr, see
§ 168. — Der. equarrh (formerly esquarrir,
from esquarre, O. Fr. form of equarre).
^questre, adj. equestrian ; from L. eques-
tris.
ifiquidistant, adj. equidistant; from L.
aequidistantem.
;fiquilat6ral, adj. equilateral; from L. ae-
quilateralis.
Ifiquilibre, sm. equilibrium ; from L. aequi-
librium. — Der. equilibrtr.
ifiquinoxe, sm. the equinox; from L. ae-
quinoctium. — Der. e'y7««o»ial.
EQUIPER, va. to equip, fit out (a ship), purvey
(generally). Equiper, O. Fr. esquiper, to rig
a ship, is from Goth. skip. For sq = esq = eq
see Hist. Gram. p. 78. — Der. equips (verbal
subst.), equipage, equipee, equipement.
Ifiquipollent, stn. an equivalent ; from L.
equipoUentem. — Der. equipollence.
ifiquitation, sf. horsemanship: from L.
equitationem.
Equity, sf. equity ; from L. aequitatem. —
I Der. equitable.
Equivalent — escient.
^31
Equivalent, sm. the equivalent; from L.
aequivalentem. — Der. equivalence.
ilfiquivaloir, vn. to be equivalent; from
L. aequivalere. See valoir.
iSquivoque, adj. equivocal ; from L. aequi-
vocus. — Der. equivoquer.
ERABLE, sm. the maple; formerly erabre,
erarbrejxom L. acer and arbor. For arbor
= arbre see arbre; for acer = ac'r see § 5 2 ;
for cr = r see benir and § 168; for a = e
see § 54. Erabre becomes erable by chang-
ing r into /, see a^itel.
6RAFLER, vn. to graze. See rafle.—Dtr.
eraflme.
ERAILLER, va. to fray, fret; O. Fr. esrailler,
from L. exrallare*, properly to heat by
friction, der. from rallum, a scraper. For ex
= es = e see Hist. Gram. p. 78. — Der. eraille-
ment, eraillnre.
Ere, sf. an era; from L. aera.
Ifirectile, adj. erectile; from L. erectilis*.
!!Srection, sf. an erection, raising ; from L.
erectionem.
EREINTER, va. to break the back of, tire
out. See rein.
ifir^sipdlCj sm. erysipelas. See erysipele.
ERGOT, sm. spur (of a bird). Origin un-
known. — Der. ergo(e.
Ergoter, vn. to quibble, weary a disputant
with syllogisms; der. from L. ergo, sign of
the conclusion in syllogism. — Der. ergotcui.
ifiriger, va. to erect; from L. erigere.
ERMITE, sm. a hermit; from L. eremita.
j For loss of e see § 52. — Der. ermitage.
Erosion, sf. erosion ; from L. erosionem.
Erotique, adj. erotic: from L. eroticus.
+ Errata, sm.pl. errata; a Lat. word.
Erratique, arf/. erratic; from L. erraticus.
ERREMENTS, sm. track, way, manner; from
O. Fr. errer, to travel, which remains in
verbal subst. erre, and in the knightly word
errant. Errer, Prov. edrar, is from L.
iterare* (to travel, from iter), contrd.
regularly into it'rare, see § 52. For tr =
rr see § 168 ; for i = e see mettre.
ERREUR, sm. an error, wandering ; from L.
errorem. See accueillir.
Erron6, adj. erroneous; from L. erroneus.
jfiruetation, sf. eructation, belching ; from
L. eructationem.
ifirudit, adj. erudite; from L. eruditus.
Erudition, sf erudition; from L. erudi-
tionem,
ifirugineux, adj. (Med.) eruginous ; from
L. aeruginosus.
Erysipdle, sm, erysipelas; from L. erysi-
pelas.
ES, contr. of en les (enls, then ens, whence es,
by regular reduction of ns to s, see aine).
Es {en les) has left some few traces in the
language, as in the phrases maitre es arts,
docteur es sciences, es mains, Saint-Pierre
es liens, etc.
ESCABEAU, sm. a stool ; from L. scabellum.
For sc = esc see Hist. Gram. p. 78 ; for
elluni = eaM see agneau.
t Escadre, sf. a squadron; introd. from It.
squadra. Its doublet is equerre, q. v.
t Escadron, sm. a squadron (of cavalry) ;
introd. in 1 6th cent, from It. squadrone.
+ Escalade, s/. escalade, scaling (of walls);
introd. in 16th cent, from It. scalata Der.
escalader.
t Escale, 5/ putting in (naval) ; from It.
scala. Its doublet is echelle, q. v.
tEacalier, sm. a staircase; from Prov.
escalier, which from L. scalarium,* deriv.
of scala. Its doublet is echalier.
tEscamoter, va. to juggle; from Sp.
escamotar. — Der. escamotsige, escamottuT.
"Y Escamper, vn. to scamper off, decamp ;
from It. scampare, whence the phrase
prendre la poudre c?'escampette.
t Escapade, sf an escapade, frolic; from
It. scappata. Its doublet is echappee.
ESCARBOT, sm. a stag-horn beetle ; dim. of
a type escarbe*, answering to L. scara-
baeus. Scarabaeus is contrd. to scar'-
baeus (see § 52), whence escarbot. For
BG = esc see Hist. Gram. p. 78; and for
addition of o^ see chabot.
ESCARBOUCLE, 5/. a carbuncle; from L.
carbunculus, with prosthesis of s. Ex-
carbunculus loses its u, see § 51. For
nc — c see coque ; for u = ou see accouder.
Escarboucle is a doublet of carboucle.
ESCARCELLE, sf a purse. See echarpe.
ESCARGOT, sm. an edible snail ; originally
escargol, from ex and the root cargo},
answering to Sp. caracol and It. caragollo.
Origin unknown.
t Escarmouche, sf. a skirmish; from
It. scaramuccia.
t Escarpe, s/". a scarp, escarpment ; from
It. Scarpa. It is a doublet of echarpe, q.v. —
Der. escarper, escarpment, contrescarpe.
+ Escarpin, sm. a pump (shoe) ; from It.
scarpino.
tEscarpolette, sf a swing; from It.
scarpoletta.
Escarre, sf. (Med.) a slought (of a wound) ;
better written escharre, from L. eschara.
Escient, sm. knowledge; from L. scientem.
For so = es see Hist. Gram. p. 78.
138
ESCLA NDRE — ESQUILLE,
ESCLANDRE, sm. a scandal; formerly es-
candle, from L. soandalvun. So&nd&-
luxn, regularly contrd. (see § 51), be-
comes scandlvim, whence O. Fr. escandle.
For sc = esc see Hist. Gram, p, 78 ; then
esclandre by intercalation of /, which is un-
common ; for dl = dr (see apotre). Esclan-
dre is a doublet of scandale, q. v.
ESCLA VE, sm. a slave; in lOth cent, sclavus,
in 9th cent, slavus, a word which rightly
means a Slavonian, and was originally
applied only to Charlemagne's Slavonian
prisoners, who were reduced to slavery.
After the loth cent, the word sclavus
takes the general sense of slave, without
distinction of nationality. For -bo\ = -escl
see Hist. Gram. p. 78, Esclave is a doublet
of slave. — Der. esclavage.
Escobarderie, sf. subterfuge, shuffle ; of
hist, origin, see § 33 , meaning to use
Escobar's reticence. Escobar was a Spanish
casuist immortalized in Pascal's Provincial
Letters.
ESCOGRIFFE, sm. a sharper. Origin un-
known.
+ Escompter, va. to discount; from It.
scontare. — Der. escompte (verbal subst.).
+ Escopette, sf. a carbine; from It.
schioppetto.
fEscorte, sf. an escort; from It. scoria.
— Der. escorter.
tEscouade, /. a squad, i6th cent.
escouadre and scouadre, from It. squadra.
It is a doublet of escadre and equerre, q. v.
ESCOURGEE, sf. a scourge; from L. ex-
oonigiata *. Excorrigidta, contrd.
regularly (see § 52), becomes escourgee.
For ex = es see ajouter; for o = ou see
affouage ; for -ata = -e« see § 201.
ESCOURGEON, sm. winter barley. Origin
unknown.
ESCOUSSE, sf. a run (before leaping) ; from
L. excussa*. — Der. rescousse.
t Esc rimer, vn. to fence ; from It. scher-
m^re. — Der. escrime (verbal subst.).
, +Escroc, sm. a swindler ; from It. scrocco.
— Der. escroquer, escroqueur, escroqutx\e.
ESPACE, sm. a space ; from L, spatium.
For 8p = esp see Hist. Gram. p. 78 ; for ti
= c see agencer. — Der. espacei, espacement.
i'Espadon, sm. a sword, sword-fish ; from
It. spadone.
fEspagnolette, ./. baize; introd. in
17th cent, from It, spagnoletta.
tEspalier, sm. a fruit-wall; from It.
spalliere.
ESPECE, sf. a kind; from L, species. For
sp = esp see Hist. Gram. p. 78. Espece is
a doublet of epice, q, v,
ESP^RER, vn. to hope; from L. sperare.
To the initial sounds sc (scribere), sm
(smaragdus), sp (sperare), st (status),
which were hard to pronounce, the Roman
people early prefixed the letter i to divide
the two consonants in pronunciation. As
early as the 4th cent, we find in Roman in-
scriptions ispatium for spatium, istare
for stare, istatua for statua, ispiritu
for spiritu, istabilis for stabilis, isma-
ragdus for smaragdus. This i soon be-
came e (see mettre), and in the 5th cent,
we find in Christian inscriptions the forms ,
estatua, espatium ; in Merov. Diplomas;
especiem, esperare, estudium. This I
change of sc into esc, sm into esm, sp into ,
esp, st into est, went on in Fr. in suchj
words as spatium, espace. Since the i6th
cent, many of these words have been again j
modified by loss of the s, see Hist, Gram. J
p, 80, and the suppression is marked by the ;
acute accent on the initial e, as in statu m^i
etat. Even farther, a false assimilation led
to the prefixing of e before words which had
no Latin s ; thus c orticem, ecorce ; car-
bunculus, escarboucle, etc.— Der. esper-
ance, d6sesperer.
Espidgle, adj. frolicsome ; of hist, origin, see
§ 33, £s/)zeg'/e isa wordof the l6th cent.,
at which time a very popular German tale
(Eulenspiegel) was translated and introduced
into Fr. under the title of ' L' Histoife
joyeuse de Till Ulespi^gle.' In this story
the hero performs a number of waggeries
and tricks. This ' Histoire de Tiel Ules-
piegle,' or, as it was written, * Histoire
de I'Espiegle,' soon became popular, and the
word espiegle became a name for a tricky,
mischievous spirit. — Der, espiegleiie.
fEspion, sm. a spy; from It. spione. —
Der. espionner, espionnage.
t Esplanade, sf. an esplanade. In
Montaigne splanade, from It, splanata.
ESPOIR, sm. hope ; from L. speres *. For
sp = ^s/> see esperer ; for e = oi see § 61.
fEsponton, sm. a spontoon; from It.
spunlona.
ESPRIT, sm. spirit; from L. spiritus, by
displacing the Lat. accent (spiritus for
spiritus) and by sp = esp, see esperer ; for
loss of i see § 52. Esprit is a doublet of
spirite.
ESQUIF, sm. a skiff; from O. H. G. sMf
For sli = esq see esperer.
ESQUILLE, sf. a splinter ; from L. schidu-
ESQ UINA NCIE — S TA BLIR .
139
lae*, dim, of schidiae, splinters of wood,
by the regular contr. (see § 51) into schid'-
lae. For dl=:// see §168; for sch. = sc
— esq see esperer and Hist. Gram, p. 63.
fEsquinancie, &f. the quinsey. i6th
cent, sqninancie, from It. schinanzia.
fEsquisse, sf. a sketch; from It.schizzo.
— Der. esquisser.
ESQUIVER, va. to evade (a blow), avoid ;
from O. H. G. skiuhan.
ESSAI, sm. a. trial ; from L. exagium, weigh-
ing, a trial of exact weight. For :s. = ss see
aisselle ; for -agivim = -a« see allier. — Der.
essay&r, essayeuv.
ESSAIM, sm. a swarm; from L. examen.
For x = ss see aisselle; for -amen = -aim
see airain. Essaim is a doublet of examen.
— Der. essaimer.
ESSARTER, va. to grub up; from L. ex-
saritare *, a frequent., der. from ex-
saritum, p. p. of ex-sarire. Exsari-
tare becomes essarter by regular fall of
i, see § 52; by xs = ss, see aisselle. — Der.
essartenitxii.
ESSAYER, va. to essay. See essai.
Essence, sf. essence; from L. essentia.
Essential, adj. essential; from L. essenti-
alis, in Isidore of Seville.
ESSIEU, sm. an axle-tree ; in Amyot aissieu,
in Montaigne aixieu, from L. axicvilus.
For Sb = ai = e see § 54; for x = ss see
aisselle ; for iculus = ieu see epieti.
ESSOR, sm. flight (of birds). See essorer.
ESSORER, va.to soar; from L. exaurare*,
deriv. of aura. For :s. = ss see aisselle ; for
au = o see alouette. Essorer in O. Fr.
meant to balance in air, soar, whence verbal
subst. essor.
ESSORILLER, va. to crop ears (of dogs);
from L, exauriculare *, der. from auri-
cula. For regular contr. of exaxu-icu-
Idre into exauriclare see § 52; for
X = ss see aisselle ; for au = see alouette ;
for cl = il see abeille,
ESSOUFFLER, va. to put out of breath. See
souffier.
ESSUYER, va. to wipe, wipe away. It. as-
ciugare, from L. exsuccare. Exsuccare,
reducing cc to c (see bee), becomes exsu-
(c)are, thence essnyer. For xs=ss see
aisselle ; for loss of medial c see affouage.
Essuyer is a doublet of essucquer.—T)Qx.
essui (verbal subst.).
EST, sm. the east ; of Germ, origin, Germ.
qst, Engl. east.
+ Estacade, sf. a stockade ; from It.
stoccata.
t Estafette, sf. an express; from It.
sta^etta.
+ Estafier, sm. a tall footman; from It.
staffiere.
t Estafilade, sf. a gash; from It.
staffilata.
Estaminet, sm. a smoking-room. Origin
unknown.
f Estampe, sf. a print, stamp; from It.
stampa. — Der. estampxWt.
fEstamper, va. to print, stamp; from
It. stampare.
Estampille, sf. a stamp. See estampe.
ESTER, vn. (Legal) to appear (in court) ; from
L. stare. For st — est see esperer.
Esth6tique, adj. aesthetic; from Gr. ai-
adrjTiKos.
Estimation, s/. esteem ; from L. aestima-
tionem. — Der. estimateur, estimatif.
Estimer, va. to esteem ; from L. aesti-
mare. — Der. estime (verbal subst.), estim-
able, vcxQiestimer, mesestime.
ESTOC, swz. (l) a stick, (2) a sword. It. stocco,
from Germ, stock. For st = est see esperer.
t Estocade, sf. a stockade; from It. stoc-
cata.
ESTOMAC, sm. a stomach ; from L. stoma-
ch.us. FoT 8t = est see esperer.
fEstompe, sf. a stump; from Germ.
stumpf.
fEstrade, sf. a route; from It. strada,
whence the phrase battre Vestrade. Its
doublet is estree.
fEstrade, /. a platform ; from It. strata.
ESTRAGON, sm. (Bot.) tarragon ; corruption
of L. draconem (primitive of dracuncu-
lus) with prefix ex. For Fr. words which
spring from corruption see § 172.
tEstram.a90n, sm. a two-edged sword ;
from It. stramazzone.
fEstrapade, sf. a strappado; from It.
strappata.
fEstropier, va. to cripple, maim; from
It. stroppiare.
Estuaire, sm. an estuary; from L. aestu-
arium. Its doublet is O. Fr. eV/er.
ESTURGEON, sm. a sturgeon. Sp. esturion,
medieval Lat. sturionem. Sturio is de-
rived from O. H. G. sturio. For st = est see
esperer; for io = jo =geo see abreger.
ET, conj. and ; from L. et.
ETABLE, sf. a stable ; formerly estable, from
L. stdbulum. For loss of u see § 51 ; for
&t — est = et see esperer and Hist. Gram. p. 81.
ETABLIR, va. to establish ; formerly establir,
from L. stabilire. Stabilire, contrd.
regularly (see § 52) into stab'lire, becomes
140
^ TA GE — ETERNUER,
etablir. For st = «/■=<?/ see esperer and
Hist. Gram. p. 8l. — Der. elabli (verbal
subst.), etablissement.
£TAGE, sm. a story (of a house) ; formerly
estage, Prov. eslatge, from L. staticum*
(properly a place where one establishes
oneself), deriv. of status. Staticum in-
dicates the state or order of the rooms of a
house. For -aticum == -o^^ see age; for
st = est = <f/ see esperer and Hist. Gram,
p. 81. Elage is a doublet of stage, q. v. —
Der. etagtr, etaghre.
£TAI, stn. stay, support; formerly estay, word
of Germ, origin, Flem. staeye. — Der. etaytx.
£TAIM, sm. fine carded wool ; formerly
estaim, from L. stamen. For -amen = -aim
see airain; for at=^est=et see esperer and
Hist. Gram. p. 81,
6TAIN, sm. tin, pewter ; formerly estain. It.
stagno, from L. stagnum* (archaic form of
stannum*). For sX = e&t = et see esperer
and Hist, Gram. p. 81 ; for gn = m see
§ 131. — Der. etamtx (from etain, like veni-
meux from venin).
ETAL, sm. a stall, butcher's shop ; formerly
estal. It. stallo, word of Germ, origin,
O. H. G. stal, Engl, stall. Etal is a doublet
of stalle, q. v. — Der. etaler, detaler (to
gather in one's goods and be gone).
ETALER, va. to expose for sale. See etal.
— Der. etalige, etahgiste.
ETALON, sm. a stallion; formerly estalon,
It. Stallone (a horse kept in the stall, and
not worked). It. Stallone is derived from
L. stalla, similarly the Fr. estalon is from
medieval L. btallum. For s,X, = est = et see
esperer and Hist. Gram. p. 81 ; for addition
of suffix on see aiglon. Stallum is O.H.G.
stall. The certainty of this etymology is
proved by the Germanic Laws, in which we
find 'equus ad stallum,' for a stallion. The
Lex Wisigothoruni, viii. 4, has ' qui alie-
num animal aut quemcumqae quadrupedem
qui ad stallum servatur, castraverit.*
ETALON, sjn. a standard (measure) ; for-
merly estalon, in Low Lat. stallonem, from
O. H. G. stihil, a stick (measure). For
st = est = et see esperer and Hist. Gram. p. 8 1 .
ETAMER, va. to tin. See etain.— Det.
etamage, etamtnr.
ETAMINE, sf. stamin, bolting - cloth ; for-
merly estamine, from estame, which from
L. stamen. For 8t = est =et see esperer
and Hist. Gram. p. 81.
ETAMINE, sf. a stamen ; from L, stamina.
For st = est = et see esperer and Hist.
Grifai. p. 81.
fiTANCHER, va. to stanch. Origin unknown.
ETANCON, sm. a stanchion ; formerly
estanfon, from O. Fr. estance, which from L.
stantia* (that which stands upright). For
st = est = et see esperer and Hist. Gram. p. 8 1 ;
ior -%iQ. = -ce stt agencer. — Der. etanfonner.
ETANG, sm. a pond, pool, O. Fr. estang,
from L. stagnum. For st = est =et see
esperer and Hist. Gram. p. 81 ; for gn = «^,
as in pugnus, poing, etc., see Hist. Gram.
_ P- 77.
ETAPE, sf. rations, halting-place; formerly
estaple, = a warehouse full of necessaries of
life (so used even by Montesquieu), then
specially a dep6t of food for troops on
march; and lastly the place where troops
halt. Etaple, in medieval Lat. stapula, is
of Germ, origin, Flem. stapel. Stdpula,
regularly contrd. (§ 51) hito stap'la, be-
comes estaple, then estape, etape. For st =
est = et see esperer and Hist. Gram. p. 81 ;
for loss of 1 see able.
ETAT, sm. state, condition; formerly estat,
from L. status. For st = est =et see
esperer and Hist. Gram. p. 81.
ETAU, sm. a vice ; formerly estau, from
Germ, stock, in the Germ, compd. schraub-
stock. For st = est = et see espdrer and
Hist. Gram. p. 81.
ETAYER, va. to stay, shore up. See etai. —
Der. etayement.
ETE, p.p. V. subst. been. See etre.
ETE, sm. summer; formerly este, from L.
aestatem. For ae = e see § 103; for
-atem = -e see § 230; for loss of s see
Hist. Gram, p. 81.
ETEINDRE, va. to extinguish; formerly
esteindre, from L, exstinguere. Ex-
stinguere becomes exstinggre, then ex-
sting're (see § 51), whence exstin're ;
whence esteindre by intercalation of d (see
Hist, Gram, p, 73), lastly eteindre by loss of
s (see Hist, Gram. p. 81). — Der. eleignoxx.
ETENDARD, sm. a standard, flag; der.
with suffix -ard from L. extendere. For
changes see etendre.
ETENDRE, va. to extend, stretch forth;
formerly estendre, from L, extendere. For
ex. = es = e see ajouter and Hist. Gram,
p. 8 1 ; for tendere = tendre see tendre,
— Der, etendue (partic, subst.).
^ternel, adj. eternal; from L. aeternalis.
ifiternit^, s/". eternity; from L. aeterni-
tatem, — Der, eternher.
ETERNUER, vn. to sneeze ; formerly estern-
uer, from L. sternutare. For loss of
medial t see abbaye; for at = est =et see
tTEVLE — ETRE.
T4I
esperer and Hist. Gram. p. 81. — Der.
eternuen\&n\..
ETEULE, sf. stubble ; formerly estenle, origi-
nally estuble, from L. stiptQa. Stipilla,
regularly contrd. (see § 51) into stip'la,
becomes estuble. For st = est =^et see es-
perer and Hist. Gram. p. 81 ; for p = 6 see
abeille. Estuble, by changing bl into ul
(see aurone and alouette), becomes estule,
whence esteule by changing u into eu (see
beugler), then eteule by loss of s (see Hist.
Gram. p. 81). Eteule is a doublet of
stipule, q. v.
:fither, sm. the aether; from L. aether. —
Der. ethere.
Ifithique, adj. ethical; from L. ethica.
Ethnique, adj. ethnical ; from L. ethnicus.
Ethnographie, sf. ethnography; from Gr.
eOvos and ypdcpeiv. — Der. ethnographique,
ethnographe.
ETIAGE, sm. low water ; from L. aestirati-
cum*, properly summer (i.e. low) level of
waters. For loss of medial v see a'ieul ;
for loss of s, see Hist. Gram. p. 81 ; for
-aticum = -age see age ; for ae = e see
, § 103-
ETINCELLE, sf. a spark ; formerly estincelle.
It. scintilla, from L. scintilla, by trans-
position of scintilla into stincilla* (see
Hist. Gram. p. 77), whence etincelle. For
i = e see mettre; for 8t = est = et see esperer
and Hist. Gram. p. 8l. — Der. etinceler
(whose doublet is scintiller, q. v.).
ETIOLER, va. to emaciate ; from L. stipu-
lare. Its doublet is stipuler, q. v. — Der.
eV/o/ement.
!fitiologie, sf. (Med.) etiology; from Gr.
airioXoyia, that part of medicine which
treats of causes of disease.
ifitique, adj. consumptive, hectic. See hec-
tiqne (of which it is a doublet). — Der.
eVzsie.
Etiquette, sf. a label. Ongin unknown.
— Der. etiqjieter.
ETOFFE, sf. stuff, cloth ; formeriy estoffe. It.
stoffa, from Germ, sioff. — Der. etofftx.
ETOILE, sf. a star ; formerly estoile, from L.
Stella. For e = ot see § 61; forst = es/
^ =et see esperer and Hist. Gram. p. 81.
ETOLE, sf. a stole ; formerly estole, from L.
stola. For st = est = ei see esperer ant^
Hist. Gram. p. 81.
ETONNER, va. to astonish ; formerly eston-
ner, from L. extonare, compd. of ex and
radical tonare, seen in at-tonare. For
ex = es see ajouter; for es = e see Hist.
. Gram. p. 81. — Der. etonnement.
ETOUFFER, va. to stifle ;'^ formerly estouffer,
compd. of ex and a radical touffer *, deriv.
of Gr. TV(pos, a word which remains in
Prov. touffe, and Sp. tttfo. Etouffer is then
rightly ' to stifle in vapour.' — Der. etouffee
(partic. subst.), etouffemQnt, etouffoix.
ETOUPE, sf. tow ; formerly estoupe, from L.
stup